Revised Edition: 2016 ISBN All rights reserved.

Transcription

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2 Revised Edition: 2016 ISBN All rights reserved. Published by: White Word Publications 48 West 48 Street, Suite 1116, New York, NY 10036, United States

3 Table of Contents Chapter 1 - Perfume Chapter 2 - Fragrance Extraction Chapter 3 - Eau de Cologne & Fragrance Wheel Chapter 4 - History of Perfume Chapter 5 - Sachet (Scented Bag) Chapter 6 - Scented Water Chapter 7 - Toilet Water Chapter 8 - Perfumer & Fragrance lamp Chapter 9 - Ittar Chapter 10 - Incense Chapter 11 - List of Perfumes Chapter 12 - Aromatherapy

4 Chapter 1 Perfume The Perfume Maker, by Rodolphe Ernst Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, animals, objects, and living spaces a pleasant scent. The odoriferous compounds that make up a perfume can be manufactured synthetically or extracted from plant or animal sources. Perfumes have been known to exist in some of the earliest human civilizations either through ancient texts or from archaeological digs. Modern perfumery began in the late 19th century with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds such as vanillin or coumarin, which allowed for the composition of perfumes with smells previously unattainable solely from natural aromatics alone.

5 History Etruscan perfume vase shaped like a female head The word perfume used today derives from the Latin per fumus, meaning "through smoke". Perfumery, or the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt and was further refined by the Romans and Persians. Although perfume and perfumery also existed in India, much of its fragrances are incense based. The earliest distillation of Ittar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita. The Harshacharita, written in 7th century in Northern India mentions use of fragrant agarwood oil. The world's first recorded chemist is considered to be a women named Etruscan, a perfume maker who was mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia. He distilled flowers, oil, and calamus with other aromatics then filtered and put them back in the still several times. In 2005, archaeologists uncovered what are believed to be the world's oldest perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years. The perfumes were discovered in an ancient perfumery. At least 60 stills, mixing bowls, funnels and perfume bottles were found in the 43,000-square-foot (4,000 m 2 ) factory. In ancient times people used herbs and spices, like almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, bergamot, as well as flowers.

6 Egyptian scene depicting the preparation of Lily perfume The Arabian chemist, Al-Kindi (Alkindus), wrote in the 9th century a book on perfumes which he named Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations. It contained more than a hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs. The book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfumemaking and perfume making equipment, such as the alembic (which still bears its Arabic name). The Persian chemist Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes were mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, which made a strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both of the raw ingredients and distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry. The art of perfumery was known in western Europe ever since 1221, if we consider the monks' recipes of Santa Maria delle Vigne or Santa Maria Novella of Florence, Italy. In the east, the Hungarians produced in 1370 a perfume made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution at the command of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary, best known as Hungary Water. The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century, Italian refinements were taken to France by Catherine de' Medici's personal perfumer,

7 Rene the Florentine (Renato il fiorentino). His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulas could be stolen en route. Thanks to Rene, France quickly became one of the European centers of perfume and cosmetic manufacture. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France. Between the 16th and 17th century, perfumes were used primarily by the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from infrequent bathing. Partly due to this patronage, the perfumery industry was created. In Germany, Italian barber Giovanni Paolo Feminis created a perfume water called Aqua Admirabilis, today best known as eau de cologne, while his nephew Johann Maria Farina (Giovanni Maria Farina) in 1732 took over the business. By the 18th century, aromatic plants were being grown in the Grasse region of France, in Sicily, and in Calabria, Italy to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, Italy and France remain the centre of the European perfume design and trade.

8 Concentration Original Eau de Cologne flacon 1811, from Johann Maria Farina, Farina gegenüber Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types. The concentration by percent/volume of perfume oil is as follows: Perfume extract, or simply perfume (Extrait): 15-40% (IFRA: typical 20%) aromatic compounds Esprit de Parfum (ESdP): 15-30% aromatic compounds, a seldom used strength concentration in between EdP and perfume

9 Eau de Parfum (EdP), Parfum de Toilette (PdT): 10-20% (typical ~15%) aromatic compounds, sometimes listed as "eau de perfume" or "millésime" Eau de Toilette (EdT): 5-15% (typical ~10%) aromatic compounds Eau de Cologne (EdC): Chypre citrus type perfumes with 3-8% (typical ~5%) aromatic compounds Perfume mist: 3-8% aromatic compounds (typical non-alcohol solvent) Splash and After shave: 1-3% aromatic compounds Perfume oils are often diluted with a solvent, though this is not always the case, and its necessity is disputed. By far the most common solvent for perfume oil dilution is ethanol or a mixture of ethanol and water. Perfume oil can also be diluted by means of neutralsmelling oils such as fractionated coconut oil, or liquid waxes such as jojoba oil. The intensity and longevity of a perfume is based on the concentration, intensity and longevity of the aromatic compounds (natural essential oils / perfume oils) used: As the percentage of aromatic compounds increases, so does the intensity and longevity of the scent created. Different perfumeries or perfume houses assign different amounts of oils to each of their perfumes. Therefore, although the oil concentration of a perfume in Eau de Parfum (EdP) dilution will necessarily be higher than the same perfume in Eau de Toilette (EdT) from within the same range, the actual amounts can vary between perfume houses. An EdT from one house may be stronger than an EdP from another. fresher than its EdP, the EdT oil may be "tweaked" to contain slightly more top notes or Men's fragrances are rarely sold as EdP or perfume extracts; equally so, women's fragrances are rarely sold in EdC concentrations. Although this gender specific naming trend is common for assigning fragrance concentrations, it does not directly have anything to do with whether a fragrance was intended for men or women. Furthermore, some fragrances with the same product name but having a different concentration name may not only differ in their dilutions, but actually use different perfume oil mixtures altogether. For instance, in order to make the EdT version of a fragrance brighter and fewer base notes. In some cases, words such as extrême, intense, or concentrée that might indicate aromatic concentration are actually completely different fragrances, related only because of a similar perfume accord. An example of this is Chanel's Pour Monsieur and Pour Monsieur Concentrée. Eau de Cologne (EdC) since 1706 in Cologne, Germany, is originally a specific fragrance and trademark. However outside of Germany the term has become generic for Chypre citrus perfumes (without base-notes).

10 Describing a perfume Shelves of perfumes: a closed cabinet, to keep out note destroying sunlight, would be more appropriate

11 Fragrance pyramid The precise formulae of commercial perfumes are kept secret. Even if they were widely published, they would be dominated by such complex ingredients and odorants that they would be of little use in providing a guide to the general consumer in description of the experience of a scent. Nonetheless, connoisseurs of perfume can become extremely skillful at identifying components and origins of scents in the same manner as wine experts. The most practical way to start describing a perfume is according to the elements of the fragrance notes of the scent or the "family" it belongs to, all of which affect the overall impression of a perfume from first application to the last lingering hint of scent. Fragrance notes Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of notes, making the harmonious scent accord. The notes unfold over time, with the immediate impression of the top note leading to the deeper middle notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as

12 the final stage. These notes are created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process of the perfume. Top notes: The scents that are perceived immediately on application of a perfume. Top notes consist of small, light molecules that evaporate quickly. They form a person's initial impression of a perfume and thus are very important in the selling of a perfume. Also called the head notes. Middle notes: The scent of a perfume that emerges just prior to when the top notes dissipate. The middle note compounds form the "heart" or main body of a perfume and act to mask the often unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become more pleasant with time. They are also called the heart notes. Base notes: The scent of a perfume that appears close to the departure of the middle notes. The base and middle notes together are the main theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidity to a perfume. Compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and "deep" and are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after application. Olfactive families The scents in the top and middle notes are influenced by the base notes, as well the scents of the base notes will be altered by the type of fragrance materials used as middle notes. Manufacturers of perfumes usually publish perfume notes and typically they present it as fragrance pyramid, with the components listed in imaginative and abstract terms. Grouping perfumes, like any taxonomy, can never be a completely objective or final process. Many fragrances contain aspects of different families. Even a perfume designated as "single flower", however subtle, will have undertones of other aromatics. "True" unitary scents can rarely be found in perfumes as it requires the perfume to exist only as a singular aromatic material. Classification by olfactive family is a starting point for a description of a perfume, but it cannot by itself denote the specific characteristic of that perfume. Traditional The traditional classification which emerged around 1900 comprised the following categories: Single Floral: Fragrances that are dominated by a scent from one particular flower; in French called a soliflore. (e.g. Serge Lutens' Sa Majeste La Rose, which is dominated by rose.) Floral Bouquet: Is a combination of fragrance of several flowers in a perfume compound. Examples include Quelques Fleurs by Houbigant and Joy by Jean Patou. Ambered, or "Oriental": A large fragrance class featuring the sweet slightly animalic scents of ambergris or labdanum, often combined with vanilla, tonka

13 bean, flowers and woods. Can be enhanced by camphorous oils and incense resins, which bring to mind Victorian era imagery of the Middle East and Far East. Traditional examples include Guerlain's Shalimar and Yves Saint Laurent's Opium. Wood: Fragrances that are dominated by woody scents, typically of agarwood, sandalwood and cedarwood. Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes. A traditional example here would be Myrurgia's Maderas De Oriente or Chanel Bois-des-Îles. A modern example would be Balenciaga Rumba. Leather: A family of fragrances which features the scents of honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars in its middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather. Traditional examples include Robert Piguet's Bandit and Balmain's Jolie Madame. Chypre: Meaning Cyprus in French, this includes fragrances built on a similar accord consisting of bergamot, oakmoss, patchouli, and labdanum. This family of fragrances is named after a perfume by François Coty, and one of the most famous examples is Guerlain's Mitsouko. Fougère: Meaning Fern in French, built on a base of lavender, coumarin and oakmoss. Houbigant's Fougère Royale pioneered the use of this base. Many men's fragrances belong to this family of fragrances, which is characterized by its sharp herbaceous and woody scent. Some well-known modern fougères are Fabergé Brut and Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir. Bright Floral: combining the traditional Single Floral & Floral Bouquet Modern Since 1945, due to great advances in the technology of perfume creation (i.e., compound design and synthesis) as well as the natural development of styles and tastes; new categories have emerged to describe modern scents: categories. A good example would be Estée Lauder's Beautiful. Green: a lighter and more modern interpretation of the Chypre type, with pronounced cut grass, crushed green leaf and cucumber-like scents. Two examples would be Estée Lauder's Aliage or Sisley's Eau de Campagne. Aquatic, Oceanic, or Ozonic: the newest category in perfume history, appearing in 1991 with Christian Dior's Dune. A very clean, modern smell leading to many of the modern androgynous perfumes. Generally contains calone, a synthetic scent discovered in Also used to accent floral, oriental, and woody fragrances. Citrus: An old fragrance family that until recently consisted mainly of "freshening" eau de colognes, due to the low tenacity of citrus scents. Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for the creation of primarily citrus fragrances. A good example here would be Brut.. Fruity: featuring the aromas of fruits other than citrus, such as peach, cassis (black currant), mango, passion fruit, and others. A modern example here would be Ginestet Botrytis.

14 Gourmand: scents with "edible" or "dessert"-like qualities. These often contain notes like vanilla, tonka bean and coumarin, as well as synthetic components designed to resemble food flavors. A sweet example is Thierry Mugler's Angel. A savory example would be Dinner by BoBo, which has cumin and curry hints. Fragrance wheel Fragrance Wheel perfume classification chart, ver The Fragrance wheel is a relatively new classification method that is widely used in retail and in the fragrance industry. The method was created in 1983 by Michael Edwards, a consultant in the perfume industry, who designed his own scheme of fragrance classification. The new scheme was created in order to simplify fragrance classification and naming scheme, as well as to show the relationships between each of the individual classes. The five standard families consist of Floral, Oriental, Woody, Fougère, and Fresh, with the former four families being more "classic" while the latter consisting of newer bright and clean smelling citrus and oceanic fragrances that have arrived due to improvements in fragrance technology. Each of the families are in turn divided into sub-groups and arranged around a wheel.

15 Aromatics sources Plant sources Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds. These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract pollinators. Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The sources of these compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other. Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petitgrain, neroli, and orange oils. Bark: Commonly used barks includes cinnamon and cascarilla. The fragrant oil in sassafras root bark is also used either directly or purified for its main constituent, safrole, which is used in the synthesis of other fragrant compounds. Flowers and blossoms: Undoubtedly the largest source of aromatics. Includes the flowers of several species of rose and jasmine, as well as osmanthus, plumeria, mimosa, tuberose, narcissus, scented geranium, cassie, ambrette as well as the blossoms of citrus and ylang-ylang trees. Although not traditionally thought of as a flower, the unopened flower buds of the clove are also commonly used. Most orchid flowers are not commercially used to produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the case of vanilla, an orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods before use in perfumery. Fruits: Fresh fruits such as apples, strawberries, cherries unfortunately do not yield the expected odors when extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are synthetic. Notable exceptions include litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry. The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include citrus such as oranges, lemons, and limes. Although grapefruit rind is still used for aromatics, more and more commercially used grapefruit aromatics are artificially synthesized since the natural aromatic contains sulfur and its degradation product is quite unpleasant in smell. Leaves and twigs: Commonly used for perfumery are lavender leaf, patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves. Sometimes leaves are valued for the "green" smell they bring to perfumes, examples of this include hay and tomato leaf. Resins: Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in incense and perfumery. Highly fragrant and antiseptic resins and resin-containing perfumes have been used by many cultures as medicines for a large variety of ailments. Commonly used resins in perfumery include labdanum, frankincense/olibanum, myrrh, Peru balsam, gum benzoin. Pine and fir resins are a particularly valued source of terpenes used in the organic synthesis of many other synthetic or naturally occurring aromatic compounds. Some of what is called amber and copal in perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil conifers. Roots, rhizomes and bulbs: Commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery include iris rhizomes, vetiver roots, various rhizomes of the ginger family.

16 Seeds: Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, carrot seed, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, and anise. Woods: Highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood oils and distillates are indispensable in perfumery. Commonly used woods include sandalwood, rosewood, agarwood, birch, cedar, juniper, and pine. These are used in the form of macerations or dry-distilled (rectified) forms. Animal sources Ambergris Ambergris: Lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose precursors were secreted and expelled by the sperm whale. Ambergris should not be confused with yellow amber, which is used in jewelry. Because the harvesting of ambergris involves no harm to its animal source, it remains one of the few animalic fragrancing agents around which little controversy now exists. Castoreum: Obtained from the odorous sacs of the North American beaver. Civet: Also called Civet Musk, this is obtained from the odorous sacs of the civets, animals in the family Viverridae, related to the mongoose. The World Society for the Protection of Animals investigated African civets caught for this purpose. Hyraceum: Commonly known as "Africa Stone", is the petrified excrement of the Rock Hyrax.

17 Honeycomb: From the honeycomb of the honeybee. Both beeswax and honey can be solvent extracted to produce an absolute. Beeswax is extracted with ethanol and the ethanol evaporated to produce beeswax absolute. Deer musk: Originally derived from the musk sacs from the Asian musk deer, it has now been replaced by the use of synthetic musks sometimes known as "white musk". Other natural sources Lichens: Commonly used lichens include oakmoss and treemoss thalli. "Seaweed": Distillates are sometimes used as essential oil in perfumes. An example of a commonly used seaweed is Fucus vesiculosus, which is commonly referred to as bladder wrack. Natural seaweed fragrances are rarely used due to their higher cost and lower potency than synthetics. Synthetic sources Many modern perfumes contain synthesized odorants. Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature. For instance, Calone, a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes. Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources. For example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from terpenes. Orchid scents (typically salicylates) are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in various orchids. One of the most commonly used class of synthetic aromatic by far are the white musks. These materials are found in all forms of commercial perfumes as a neutral background to the middle notes. These musks are added in large quantities to laundry detergents in order to give washed clothes a lasting "clean" scent. The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies. They include: International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF) Givaudan Firmenich Takasago Symrise Each of these companies patents several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics annually.

18 Characteristics Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor characteristics in perfumery Variance Naturals Vary by the times and locations where they are harvested as well as how the product was extracted from the raw material. It's much more difficult to produce consistent products with equivalent odor over years of harvest and production. As such, the perfumer has to "manually" balance-out the natural variations of the ingredients in order to maintain the quality of the perfume. In addition, unscrupulous suppliers may adulterate the actual raw materials by changing its source (adding Indian Jasmine into Grasse Jasmine) or the contents (adding linalool to Rosewood) to increase their profit margin. Synthetics Much more consistent than natural aromatics. However, differences in organic synthesis may result in minute differences in concentration of impurities. If these impurities have low smell (detection) thresholds, the differences in the scent of the synthetic aromatic will be significant. Components Scent Uniqueness Scent Complexity Thousands of chemical compounds; large potential for allergies. Bears a slight resemblance scent to its originating material, depending on the how the extraction method denatures the odoriferous compounds. Deep and complex fragrance notes. Softer with subtle scent nuances. Depending on purity, consists primarily of one chemical compound. Sometimes chiral mixtures of isomers, such as in the case of Iso E Super. Similar to natural scents if the compounds are the same. Novel scent compounds not found in nature will often be unique in their scent and dissimilar to the scents of any naturals. Pure and pronounced fragrance notes. Structural and defined.

19 Price Perfume composed of largely natural materials are usually much more expensive. Prices are determined by the labor and difficulty of properly extracting each unit of the natural materials as well as its quality. Perfumes using largely synthetic aromatics can be available at widely-affordable prices. Synthetic aromatics are not necessarily cheaper than naturals, with some synthetics being more costly than most natural ingredients due to various factors such as the complexity of synthesis or extraction procedure. However, due to their low odor threshold, one does not need to use much of these materials to produce a perfume. Obtaining natural odorants Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various perfume compositions must first be obtained. Synthetic odorants are produced through organic synthesis and purified. Odorants from natural sources require the use of various methods to extract the aromatics from the raw materials. The results of the extraction are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product. All these techniques will, to a certain extent, distort the odor of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. This is due to the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the extraction process which will denature the aromatic compounds, which either change their odor character or renders them odorless. Maceration/Solvent extraction: The most used and economically important technique for extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry. Raw materials are submerged in a solvent that can dissolve the desired aromatic compounds. Maceration lasts anywhere from hours to months. Fragrant compounds for woody and fibrous plant materials are often obtained in this manner as are all aromatics from animal sources. The technique can also be used to extract odorants that are too volatile for distillation or easily denatured by heat. Commonly used solvents for maceration/solvent extraction include hexane, and dimethyl ether. The product of this process is called a "concrete". o Supercritical fluid extraction: A relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employs Supercritical CO 2. Due to the low heat of process and the relatively nonreactive solvent used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived often closely resemble the original odor of the raw material. o Ethanol extraction: A type of solvent extraction used to extract fragrant compounds directly from dry raw materials, as well as the impure oily compounds materials resulting from solvent extraction or enfleurage.

20 Ethanol extraction is not used to extract fragrance from fresh plant materials since these contain large quantities of water, which will also be extracted into the ethanol. Distillation: A common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from plants, such as orange blossoms and roses. The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds An old perfume still on display at Fragonard are re-collected through condensation of the distilled vapour. o Steam distillation: Steam from boiling water is passed through the raw material, which drives out their volatile fragrant compounds. The

21 o o condensate from distillation are settled in a Florentine flask. This allows for the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the water. The water collected from the condensate, which retains some of the fragrant compounds and oils from the raw material is called hydrosol and sometimes sold. This is most commonly used for fresh plant materials such as flowers, leaves, and stems. Dry/destructive distillation: The raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods where an intentional "burned" or "toasted" odor is desired. Fractionation: Through the use of a fractionation column, different fractions distilled from a material can be selectively excluded to modify the scent of the final product. Although the product is more expensive, this is sometimes performed to remove unpleasant or undesirable scents of a material and affords the perfumer more control over their composition process. Fragrant extracts Expression: Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the oils are collected. Of all raw materials, only the fragrant oils from the peels of fruits in the citrus family are extracted in this manner since the oil is present in large enough quantities as to make this extraction method economically feasible. Enfleurage: Absorption of aroma materials into solid fat or wax and then extracting the odorous oil with ethyl alcohol. Extraction by enfleurage was commonly used when distillation was not possible because some fragrant compounds denature through high heat. This technique is not commonly used in the present day industry due to its prohibitive cost and the existence of more efficient and effective extraction methods. Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term "essential oils", a more specific language is used in the fragrance industry to describe the source, purity, and technique used to obtain a particular fragrant extract. Of these extracts, only absolutes, essential oils, and tinctures are directly used to formulate perfumes. Absolute: Fragrant materials that are purified from a pommade or concrete by soaking them in ethanol. By using a slightly hydrophilic compound such as ethanol, most of the fragrant compounds from the waxy source materials can be extracted without dissolving any of the fragrantless waxy molecules. Absolutes are usually found in the form of an oily liquid. Concrete: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from raw materials through solvent extraction using volatile hydrocarbons. Concretes usually contain a large

22 amount of wax due to the ease in which the solvents dissolve various hydrophobic compounds. As such concretes are usually further purified through distillation or ethanol based solvent extraction. Concretes are typically either waxy or resinous solids or thick oily liquids. Essential oil: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from a source material directly through distillation or expression and obtained in the form of an oily liquid. Oils extracted through expression are sometimes called expression oils. Pomade: A fragrant mass of solid fat created from the enfleurage process, in which odorous compounds in raw materials are adsorbed into animal fats. Pommades are found in the form of an oily and sticky solid. Tincture: Fragrant materials produced by directly soaking and infusing raw materials in ethanol. Tinctures are typically thin liquids. Products from different extraction methods are known under different names even though their starting materials are the same. For instance, orange blossoms from Citrus aurantium that have undergone solvent extraction produces "orange blossom absolute" but that which have been steam distilled is known as "neroli oil". Composing perfumes Counterfeit perfumes Perfume compositions are an important part of many industries ranging from the luxury goods sectors, food services industries, to manufacturers of various household chemicals. The purpose of using perfume or fragrance compositions in these industries is to affect

23 customers through their sense of smell and entice them into purchasing the perfume or perfumed product. As such there is significant interest in producing a perfume formulation that people will find aesthetically pleasing. The perfumer The job of composing perfumes that will sell is left up to an expert on perfume composition or known in the fragrance industry as the perfumer. They are also sometimes referred to affectionately as a "Nez" (French for nose) due to their fine sense of smell and skill in smell composition. The composition of a perfume typically begins with a brief by the perfumer's employer or an outside customer. The customers to the perfumer or their employers, are typically fashion houses or large corporations of various industries. The perfumer will then go through the process of blending multiple perfume mixtures and sell the formulation to the customer, often with modifications of the composition of the perfume. Technique The perfume composition will then be either used to enhance another product as a functional fragrance (shampoos, make-up, detergents, car interiors, etc.), or marketed and sold directly to the public as a fine fragrance. Paper blotters (fr:mouillettes) are commonly used by perfumers to sample and smell perfumes and odorants.

24 Although there is no single "correct" technique for the formulation of a perfume, there are general guidelines as to how a perfume can be constructed from a concept. Although many ingredients do not contribute to the smell of a perfume, many perfumes include colorants and anti-oxidants to improve the marketability and shelf life of the perfume, respectively. Basic framework Perfume oils usually contain tens to hundreds of ingredients and these are typically organized in a perfume for the specific role they will play. These ingredients can be roughly grouped into four groups: Primary scents: Can consist of one or a few main ingredients for a certain concept, such as "rose". Alternatively, multiple ingredients can be used together to create an "abstract" primary scent that does not bear a resemblance to a natural ingredient. For instance, jasmine and rose scents are commonly blends for abstract floral fragrances. Cola flavourant is a good example of an abstract primary scent. Modifiers: These ingredients alter the primary scent to give the perfume a certain desired character: for instance, fruit esters may be included in a floral primary to create a fruity floral; calone and citrus scents can be added to create a "fresher" floral. The cherry scent in cherry cola can be considered a modifier. Blenders: A large group of ingredients that smooth out the transitions of a perfume between different "layers" or bases. These themselves can be used as a major component of the primary scent. Common blending ingredients include linalool and hydroxycitronellal. Fixatives: Used to support the primary scent by bolstering it. Many resins, wood scents, and amber bases are used as fixatives. The top, middle, and base notes of a fragrance may have separate primary scents and supporting ingredients. The perfume's fragrance oils are then blended with ethyl alcohol and water, aged in tanks for several weeks and filtered through processing equipment to, respectively allow the perfume ingredients in the mixture to stabilize and to remove any sediment and particles before the solution can be filled into the perfume bottles.

25 Fragrance bases A "perfume organ", where perfumers play around with hundreds of essences, in Grasse Instead of building a perfume from "ground up", many modern perfumes and colognes are made using fragrance bases or simply bases. Each base is essentially modular perfume that is blended from essential oils and aromatic chemicals, and formulated with a simple concept such as "fresh cut grass" or "juicy sour apple". Many of Guerlain's Aqua Allegoria line, with their simple fragrance concepts, are good examples of what perfume fragrance bases are like.

26 The effort used in developing bases by fragrance companies or individual perfumers may equal that of a marketed perfume, since they are useful in that they are reusable. On top of its reusability, the benefit in using bases for construction are quite numerous: 1. Ingredients with "difficult" or "overpowering" scents that are tailored into a blended base may be more easily incorporated into a work of perfume 2. A base may be better scent approximations of a certain thing than the extract of the thing itself. For example, a base made to embody the scent for "fresh dewy rose" might be a better approximation for the scent concept of a rose after rain than plain rose oil. Flowers whose scents cannot be extracted, such as gardenia or hyacinth, are composed as bases from data derived from headspace technology. 3. A perfumer can quickly rough out a concept from a brief by cobbling together multiple bases, then present it for feedback. Smoothing out the "edges" of the perfume can be done after a positive response. Reverse engineering Creating perfumes through reverse engineering with analytical techniques such as GC/MS can reveal the "general" formula for any particular perfume. The difficulty of GC/MS analysis arises due to the complexity of a perfume's ingredients. This is particularly due to the presence of natural essential oils and other ingredients consisting of complex chemical mixtures. However, "anyone armed with good GC/MS equipment and experienced in using this equipment can today, within days, find out a great deal about the formulation of any perfume... customers and competitors can analyze most perfumes more or less precisely." Antique or badly preserved perfumes undergoing this analysis can also be difficult due to the numerous degradation by-products and impurities that may have resulted from breakdown of the odorous compounds. Ingredients and compounds can usually be ruled out or identified using gas chromatograph (GC) smellers, which allow individual chemical components to be identified both through their physical properties and their scent. Reverse engineering of best-selling perfumes in the market is a very common practice in the fragrance industry due to the relative simplicity of operating GC equipment, the pressure to produce marketable fragrances, and the highly lucrative nature of the perfume market. Health and environmental issues Perfume ingredients, regardless of natural or synthetic origins, may all cause health or environmental problems when used or abused in substantial quantities. Although the areas are under active research, much remains to be learned about the effects of fragrance on human health and the environment.

27 Health Immunological Evidence in peer-reviewed journals shows that some fragrances can cause asthmatic reactions in some individuals, especially those with severe or atopic asthma. Many fragrance ingredients can also cause headaches, allergic skin reactions or nausea. In some cases, an excessive use of perfumes may cause allergic reactions of the skin. For instance, acetophenone, ethyl acetate and acetone while present in many perfumes, are also known or potential respiratory allergens. Nevertheless this may be misleading, since the harm presented by many of these chemicals (either natural or synthetic) is dependent on environmental conditions and their concentrations in a perfume. For instance, linalool, which is listed as an irritant, causes skin irritation when it degrades to peroxides, however the use of antioxidants in perfumes or reduction in concentrations can prevent this. Carcinogenicity Some research on natural aromatics have shown that many contain compounds that cause skin irritation. However some studies, such as IFRA's research claim that opoponax is too dangerous to be used in perfumery, still lack scientific consensus. It is also true that sometimes inhalation alone can cause skin irritation. There is scientific evidence that nitro-musks such as Musk xylene can cause cancer. However common ingredients, like certain polycyclic synthetic musks, can disrupt the balance of hormones in the human body (endocrine disruption). Some natural aromatics, such as oakmoss absolutes, contain allergens and carcinogenic compounds. Environmental Pollution Synthetic musks are pleasant in smell and relatively inexpensive, as such they are often employed in large quantities to cover the unpleasant scent of laundry detergents and many personal cleaning products. Due to their large scale use, several types of synthetic musks have been found in human fat and milk, as well as in the sediments and waters of the Great Lakes. These pollutants may pose additional health and environmental problems when they enter human and animal diets. Species endangerment The demands for aromatic materials like sandalwood, agarwood, musk has led to the endangerment of these species as well as illegal trafficking and harvesting.

28 Safety regulation The perfume industry in the US is not directly regulated by the FDA, instead the FDA controls the safety of perfumes through their ingredients and requires that they be tested to the extent that they are Generally recognized as safe (GRAS). Due to the need for protection of trade secrets, companies rarely give the full listing of ingredients regardless of their effects on health. In Europe, as from 11 March 2005, the mandatory listing of a set of 26 recognized fragrance allergens was enforced. The requirement to list these materials is dependant on the intended use of the final product. The limits above which the allegens are required to be declared are 0.001% for products intended to remain on the skin,and 0.01% for those intended to be rinsed off. This has resulted in many old perfumes like chypres and fougère classes, which require the use of oakmoss extract, being reformulated. Preserving perfume Fragrance compounds in perfumes will degrade or break down if improperly stored in the presence of: Heat Light Oxygen Extraneous organic materials Proper preservation of perfumes involve keeping them away from sources of heat and storing them where they will not be exposed to light. An opened bottle will keep its aroma intact for several years, as long as it is well stored. However the presence of oxygen in the head space of the bottle and environmental factors will in the long run alter the smell of the fragrance. Perfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight aluminium bottles or in their original packaging when not in use, and refrigerated to relatively low temperatures: between 3-7 degrees Celsius (37-45 degrees Fahrenheit). The Osmothèque, a perfume conservatory and museum, store their perfumes in argon evacuated aluminium flasks at 12 degrees Celsius. Although it is difficult to completely remove oxygen from the headspace of a stored flask of fragrance, opting for spray dispensers instead of rollers and "open" bottles will minimize oxygen exposure. Sprays also have the advantage of isolating fragrance inside a bottle and preventing it from mixing with dust, skin, and detritus, which would degrade and alter the quality of a perfume.

29 Chapter 2 Fragrance Extraction Copper still from 19th to 20th century Grasse, France for steam distillation

30 Fragrance extraction refers to the extraction of aromatic compounds from raw materials, using methods such as distillation, solvent extraction, expression, or enfleurage. The results of the extracts are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product. To a certain extent, all of these techniques tend to distort the odour of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials. Heat, chemical solvents, or exposure to oxygen in the extraction process denature the aromatic compounds, either changing their odour character or rendering them odourless. Maceration/Solvent extraction Certain plant materials contain too little volatile oil to undergo expression, or their chemical components are too delicate and easily denatured by the high heat used in steam distillation. Instead, the oils are extracted using their solvent properties. Organic solvent extraction Organic solvent extraction is the most common and most economically important technique for extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry. Raw materials are submerged and agitated in a solvent that can dissolve the desired aromatic compounds. Commonly used solvents for maceration/solvent extraction include hexane, and dimethyl ether. In organic solvent extraction, aromatic compounds as well as other hydrophobic soluble substances such as wax and pigments are also obtained. The extract is subjected to vacuum processing, which removes the solvent for re-use. The process can last anywhere from hours to months. Fragrant compounds for woody and fibrous plant materials are often obtained in this matter as are all aromatics from animal sources. The technique can also be used to extract odorants that are too volatile for distillation or easily denatured by heat. The remaining waxy mass is known as a concrete, which is a mixture of essential oil, waxes, resins, and other lipophilic (oil soluble) plant material, since these solvents effectively remove all hydrophobic compounds in the raw material. The solvent is then removed by a lower temperature distillation process and reclaimed for re-use. Although highly fragrant, concretes are too viscous - even solid - at room temperature to be useful. This is due to the presence of high-molecular-weight, non-fragrant waxes and resins. Another solvent, often ethyl alcohol, which only dissolves the fragrant lowmolecular weight compounds, must be used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol is removed by a second distillation, leaving behind the absolute. These extracts from plants such as jasmine and rose, are called absolutes. Due to the low temperatures in this process, the absolute may be more faithful to the original scent of the raw material, which is subjected to high heat during the distillation process.

31 Supercritical fluid extraction Supercritical fluid extraction is a relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employs Supercritical CO 2 as the extraction solvent. When carbon dioxide is put under high pressure at slightly above room temperature, a supercritical fluid forms (Under normal pressure CO 2 changes directly from a solid to a gas in a process known as sublimation.) Since CO 2 in a non-polar compound has low surface tension and wets easily, it can be used to extract the typically hydrophobic aromatics from the plant material. This process is identical to one of the techniques for making decaffeinated coffee. In supercritical fluid extraction, high pressure carbon dioxide gas (up to 100 atm.) is used as a solvent.due to the low heat of process and the relatively unreactive solvent used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived often closely resemble the original odour of the raw material. Like solvent extraction, the CO 2 extraction takes place at a low temperature, extracts a wide range of compounds, and leaves the aromatics unaltered by heat, rendering an essence more faithful to the original. Since CO 2 is gas at normal atmospheric pressure, it also leaves no trace of itself in the final product, thus allowing one to get the absolute directly without having to deal with a concrete. It is a lowtemperature process, and the solvents are easily removed. Extracts produced using this process are known as CO 2 extracts. Ethanol extraction Ethanol extraction is a type of solvent extraction used to extract fragrant compounds directly from dry raw materials, as well as the impure oils or concrete resulting from organic solvent extraction, expression, or enfluerage. Ethanol extracts from dry materials are called tinctures, while ethanol washes for purifying oils and concretes are called absolutes. The impure substances or oils are mixed with ethanol, which is less hydrophobic than solvents used for organic extraction, dissolves more of the oxidized aromatic constituents (alcohols, aldehydes, etc.), leaving behind the wax, fats, and other generally hydrophobic substances. The alcohol is evaporated under low-pressure, leaving behind absolute. The absolute may be further processed to remove any impurities that are still present from the solvent extraction. Ethanol extraction is not used to extract fragrance from fresh plant materials; these contain large quantities of water, which would also be extracted into the ethanol. Distillation Distillation is a common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from plants, such as orange blossoms and roses. The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-collected through condensation of the distilled vapor. Distilled products, whether through steam or dry distillation are known either as essential oils or ottos.

32 Today, most common essential oils, such as lavender, peppermint, and eucalyptus, are distilled. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, or peel, is put into an alembic (distillation apparatus) over water, Steam distillation Steam from boiling water is passed through the raw material for minutes, which drives out most of their volatile fragrant compounds. The condensate from distillation, which contain both water and the aromatics, is settled in a Florentine flask. This allows for the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the water as the oil will float to the top of the distillate where it is removed, leaving behind the watery distillate. The water collected from the condensate, which retains some of the fragrant compounds and oils from the raw material, is called hydrosol and is sometimes sold for consumer and commercial use. This method is most commonly used for fresh plant materials such as flowers, leaves, and stems. Popular hydrosols are rose water, lavender water, and orange blossom water. Many plant hydrosols have unpleasant smells and are therefore not sold. Dry/destructive distillation Most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata), which takes 22 hours to complete distillation. It is fractionally distilled, producing several grades (Ylang-Ylang "extra", I, II, III and "complete," in which the distillation is run from start to finish with no interruption). Also known as rectification, the raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water. Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes. This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods (such as birch tar) where an intentional "burned" or "toasted" odour is desired. Fractionation distillation Through the use of a fractionation column, different fractions distilled from a material can be selectively excluded to manipulated the scent of the final product. Although the product is more expensive, this is sometimes performed to remove unpleasant or undesirable scents of a material and affords the perfumer more control over their composition process. Expression Expression as a method of frangrance extraction where raw materials are pressed, squeezed or compressed and the oils are collected. In contemporary times, the only fragrant oils obtained using this method are the peels of fruits in the citrus family. This is due to the large quantity of oil is present in the peels of these fruits as to make this extraction method economically feasible. Citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically, or

33 cold-pressed. Due to the large quantities of oil in citrus peel and the relatively low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils that are obtained as by-products of the commercial citrus industry are among the cheapest citrus oils. Expression was mainly used prior to the discovery of distillation, and this is still the case in cultures such as Egypt. Traditional Egyptian practice involves pressing the plant material, then burying it in unglazed ceramic vessels in the desert for a period of months to drive out water. The water has a smaller molecular size, so it diffuses through the ceramic vessels, while the larger essential oils do not. The lotus oil in Tutankhamen's tomb, which retained its scent after 3000 years sealed in alabaster vessels, was pressed in this manner. Enfleurage Enfleurage is a two-step process during which the odour of aromatic materials is absorbed into wax or fat, then extracted with alcohol. Extraction by enfleurage was commonly used when distillation was not possible because some fragrant compounds denature through high heat. This technique is not commonly used in modern industry, due to both its prohibitive cost and the existence of more efficient and effective extraction methods.

34 Chapter 3 Eau de Cologne & Fragrance Wheel Eau de Cologne Original Eau de Cologne Cologne or Eau de Cologne is a toiletry, a perfume in a style that originated from Cologne, Germany. It is nowadays a generic term for scented formulations in typical

35 concentration of 2-5% essential oils. However as of today cologne is a blend of extracts, alcohol, and water. Colognes may be used by men or women but are generally marketed to men as an alternative to perfume. Composition In a base of dilute ethanol (70-90%), Eau de Cologne contains a mixture of citrus oils including oils of lemon, orange, tangerine, bergamot, lime, grapefruit and neroli. It can also contain oils of lavender, rosemary, thyme, petitgrain (orange leaf), and jasmine. History The original Eau de Cologne is a spirit-citrus perfume launched in Cologne in 1709 by Giovanni Maria Farina ( ), an Italian perfume maker from Santa Maria Maggiore Valle Vigezzo, Italy. In 1708, Farina wrote to his brother Jean Baptiste: "I have found a fragrance that reminds me of an Italian spring morning, of mountain daffodils and orange blossoms after the rain" (Eckstein p. 8). He named his fragrance Eau de Cologne, in honour of his new hometown. launched over 100 years after Farina's one, such as the famous Cologne 4711, named The Original Eau de Cologne composed by Farina was used only as a perfume and delivered to "nearly all royal houses in Europe" (Farina Fragrance Museum information leaflet). His ability to produce a constantly homogenous fragrance consisting of dozens of monoessences was seen as a sensation at the time. When free trade was established in Cologne by the French in 1797, the success of Eau de Cologne prompted countless other businessmen to sell their own fragrances under the name of Eau de Cologne. Giovanni Maria Farina's formula has been produced in Cologne since 1709 by Farina opposite the Jülichplatz and to this day remains a secret. His shop at Obenmarspforten opened in 1709 and is today the world's oldest fragrance factory. Other Colognes were after its location at "Glockengasse No. 4711". In 1806, Jean Marie Joseph Farina, a grand-grand-nephew of Giovanni Maria Farina ( ), opened a perfumery business in Paris that was later sold to Roger & Gallet. That company now owns the rights to Eau de Cologne extra vieille in contrast to the Original Eau de Cologne from Cologne. Eau de Cologne, or just "cologne", has now become a generic term. The term "cologne" can be applied to perfume for men or women, but modern convention dictates, in the English language, that it should be assumed the term is most likely when talking about men's fragrance. This convention does not exist in German, however.

36 Fragrance Wheel The Fragrance Wheel The Fragrance Wheel is a fragrance classification method developed in 1983 by Michael Edwards, a consultant in the fragrance industry. He designed it after being inspired by a fragrance seminar by Firmenich. The new method was initiated in order to make simpler the fragrance classification and naming scheme, as well as to show the relationships between each individual fragrance family. The four standard families are Floral, Oriental, Woody and Fresh. These are in turn divided into three sub-groups and arranged in a circle, each group being related to the next. The exception to this rule is the Fougère family which stands in the center of the Fragrance wheel as it contains elements from many of the other families. Originally they are: 1983 version Floral Fougère Floral Soft Floral

37 Fougère Floral Oriental Soft Oriental Oriental Oriental Woody Oriental Mossy Woods Woody Dry Woods Citrus Fresh Green Water 2008 version Floral Floral Soft Floral Floral Oriental Oriental Soft Oriental Oriental Woody Oriental Woods Woody Mossy Woods Dry Woods Citrus Fruity Fresh Green Water The Fougère family is placed at the center of this wheel since they are a large family of scents that usually contain fragrance elements from each of the other four families; citrus from the fresh family, oak moss and woods from the woody family, coumarin and incense from the Oriental family, and lavender from the floral family. In this classification scheme, Chanel No.5, which is traditionally classified as a "Floral Aldehyde" would be located under Soft Floral sub-group, and "Amber" scents would be placed within the Oriental group. As a class, Chypres is more difficult to place since they would be located under parts of the Oriental and Woody families. For instance, Guerlain Mitsouko, which is classically identified as a chypre will be placed under Mossy Woods, but Hermès Rouge, a chypre with more floral character, would be placed under Floral Oriental. With the publication of Fragrances of the World 2008, two new sub-groups: Fruity and Woods, have been added to the wheel

38 Sub-groups The sub-groups of the fragrance wheel are: Floral (Floral + Fresh Notes). Main notes include fresh-cut flowers. Soft Floral (Floral Notes). Main notes include aldehydes and powdery notes. Floral Oriental (Floral + Oriental Notes). Main notes include orange blossom and sweet spices. Soft Oriental (Oriental + Floral Notes). Main notes include incense and amber. Oriental (Oriental Notes). Main notes include oriental resins and vanilla. Woody Oriental (Oriental + Woody Notes). Main notes include sandalwood and patchouli. Woods Main notes include aromatic woods and vetiver. Mossy Woods (Woody + Oriental Notes). Main notes include oakmoss and amber. Dry Woods (Woody Notes). Main notes include dry woods and leather. Citrus (Woody + Fresh Notes). Main notes include bergamot and other citrus oils. Fruity Main notes include berries and other non-citrus fruits. Green (Fresh Notes). Main notes include galbanum and green notes. Water (Fresh + Floral Notes). Main notes include marine and aquatic notes, generally from the chemical calone. Fougère - The universal fragrance family whose scent includes elements from different families: the freshness of from the Citrus family, floral notes of lavender, the spicy-sweetness of a Floral Oriental, the ambery depth of an Oriental and the Mossy Woods warmth of sandalwood and oakmoss.

39 Chapter 4 History of Perfume Egyptian scene depicting the preparation of Lily perfume The history of perfume began in antiquity. The word perfume is used today to describe scented mixtures and is derived from the Latin word, "per fumus", meaning through smoke. Perfumery, or the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Egypt but was developed and further refined by the Romans and the Arabs. Although perfume and perfumery also existed in East Asia, much of its fragrances are incense based. The basic

40 ingredients and methods of making perfumes are described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia. Mesopotamia The world's first recorded chemist is a person named Tapputi, a perfume maker who was mentioned in a Cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia. India Perfume and perfumery also existed in India, much of its fragrances were incense based. The earliest distillation of Attar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita. The Harshacharita, written in 7th century A.D. in Northern India mentions use of fragrant agarwood oil. To date, the oldest perfumery was discovered on the island of Cyprus. Excavations in under the initiative of an Italian archaeological team unearthed evidence of an enormous factory that existed 4,000 years ago during the Bronze Age. This covered an estimated surface area of over 4,000m² indicating that perfume manufacturing was on an industrial scale. The news of this discovery was reported extensively through the world press and many artifacts are already on display in Rome. The Bible describes a sacred perfume (Exodus 30:22-33) consisting of liquid myrrh, fragrant cinnamon, fragrant cane, and cassia. Its use was forbidden, except by the priests. The woman wore perfume to present their beauty. Cyprus Islamic Islamic cultures contributed significantly in the development of Western perfumery in both perfecting the extraction of fragrances through steam distillation and introducing new, raw ingredients. Both of the raw ingredients and distillation technology significantly influenced Western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry. As traders, Islamic cultures such as the Arabs and Persians had wider access to different spices, herbals, and other fragrance material. In addition to trading them, many of these exotic materials were cultivated by the Muslims such that they can be successfully grown outside of their native climates. Two examples of this include jasmine, which is native to South and Southeast Asia, and various citrus, which are native to East Asia. Both of these ingredients are still highly important in modern perfumery. In Islamic culture, perfume usage has been documented as far back as the 6th century and its usage is considered a religious duty. Muhammad said:

41 The taking of a bath on Friday is compulsory for every male Muslim who has attained the age of puberty and (also) the cleaning of his teeth with Miswaak (type of twig used as a toothbrush), and the using of perfume if it is available. (Recorded in Sahih Bukhari). Such rituals gave incentives to scholars to search and develop a cheaper way to produce incenses and in mass production. Thanks to the hard work of two talented Arabian chemists: Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber, born 722, Iraq), and Al-Kindi (Alkindus, born 801, Iraq) who established the perfume industry. Jabir developed many techniques, including distillation, evaporation and filtration, which enabled the collection of the odour of plants into a vapour that could be collected in the form of water or oil. Al-Kindi, however, was the real founder of perfume industry as he carried out extensive research and experiments in combining various plants and other sources to produce a variety of scent products. He elaborated a vast number of recipes for a wide range of perfumes, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. His work in the laboratory is reported by a witness who said: I received the following description, or recipe, from Abu Yusuf Ya'qub b. Ishaq al-kindi, and I saw him making it and giving it an addition in my presence. The writer goes on in the same section to speak of the preparation of a perfume called ghaliya, which contained musk, amber and other ingredients; too long to quote here, but which reveals a long list of technical names of drugs and apparatus. Al-Kindi also wrote in the 9th century a book on perfumes which he named Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations. It contained more than hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs. The book also described one hundred and seven methods and recipes for perfume-making, and even the perfume making equipment, like the alembic, still bears its Arabic name. The Persian Muslim doctor and chemist Avicenna (also known as Ibn Sina) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes were mixtures of oil and crushed herbs, or petals which made a strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both of the raw ingredients and distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry. Eggs and floral perfumes were brought to Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries from Arabia, through trade with the Islamic world and with the returning Crusaders. Those who traded for these were most often also involved in trade for spices and dyestuffs. There are records of the Pepperers Guild of London, going back to 1179; which show them trading with Muslims in spices, perfume ingredients and dyes.

42 Western Knowledge of something perfumery came to Europe as early as the 14th century due partially to Arabic influences and knowledge. But it was the Hungarians who ultimately introduced the first modern perfume. The first modern perfume, made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution, was made in 1370 at the command of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary and was known throughout Europe as Hungary Water. The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century, Italian refinements were taken to France by Catherine de' Medici's personal perfumer, Rene le Florentin. His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulas could be stolen en route. France quickly became the European center of perfume and cosmetic manufacture. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France. During the Renaissance period, perfumes were used primarily by royalty and the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from the sanitary practices of the day. Partly due to this patronage, the western perfumery industry was created. Perfume enjoyed huge success during the 17th century. Perfumed gloves became popular in France and in 1656, the guild of glove and perfume-makers was established. Perfumers were also known to create poisons; for instance, a French duchess was murdered when a perfume/poison was rubbed into her gloves and was slowly absorbed into her skin. the 18th century, aromatic plants were being grown in the Grasse region of France to Perfume came into its own when Louis XV came to the throne in the 18th century. His court was called "le cour parfumee" (the perfumed court). Madame de Pompadour ordered generous supplies of perfume, and King Louis demanded a different fragrance for his apartment everyday. The court of Louis XIV was even named due to the scents which were applied daily not only to the skin but also to clothing, fans and furniture. Perfume substituted for soap and water. The use of perfume in France grew steadily. By provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, France remains the centre of the European perfume design and trade. After Napoleon came to power, exorbitant expenditures for perfume continued. Two quarts of violet cologne were delivered to him each week, and he is said to have used sixty bottles of double extract of jasmine every month. Josephine had stronger perfume preferences. She was partial to musk, and she used so much that sixty years after her death the scent still lingered in her boudoir. England Perfume reached its peak in England during the reigns of Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth I. All public places were scented during Queen Elizabeth's rule, since she could not tolerate bad smells. It was said that the sharpness of her nose was equaled only by the slyness of her tongue. Ladies of the day took great pride in creating delightful fragrances and they displayed their skill in mixing scents.

43 As with industry and the arts, perfume was to undergo profound change in the 19th century. Changing tastes and the development of modern chemistry laid the foundations of perfumery as we know it today. Alchemy gave way to chemistry and new fragrances were created. The industrial revolution had in no way diminished the taste for perfume, there was even a fragrance called "Parfum à la Guillotine". Under the post-revolutionary government, people once again dared to express a penchant for luxury goods, including perfume. A profusion of vanity boxes containing perfumes appeared in the 19th century. In early America, the first scents were colognes and scented water. Florida water, an uncomplicated mixture of eau de cologne with a dash of oil of cloves, cassia, and lemongrass, was popular.

44 Chapter 5 Sachet (Scented Bag) A sachet is a small cloth scented bag filled with herbs, potpourri, or aromatic ingredients. It is also defined as a small soft bag containing perfumed or sweet-smelling items also referred to as an ascent bag, scent bag, sweet bag, sachet bag, sachet de senteurs, spiced sachet, potpourri sachet, scented sachet, perfume cushion, smelling cushion, scented cushion, fragrant bag, pomander and "dream pillow." Cultural history In the Han Dynasty both boys and girls wore sachets and in the Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty scented bags gradually became preferred only by women. During the Chinese Warring States Period a scented sachet was an ornament worn on the body and used to absorb sweat, repel insects and ward off evils. A scented sachet became a love token in the Qing Dynasty. Queen Isabella of Spain used fragrant sachets consisting of dried rose and carnation petals, orris and calamus root, and other ingredients like powdered coriander seeds. In the nineteenth century a sachet filled with hops was called a "Pulvinar Humuli" and used by George the Third and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg to help induce sleep. In medieval times it was defined as a plague bag (sweet-smelling pomander) worn around the neck or dangled from the waist. It was for protection against pestiferous and corrupt air. These "sachets" contained sweet powders, aromatic calamus, benzoin, storax, galingale, cloves, and other fragrances from a herb or flower garden. In modern times it is

45 a small scent-bag laid among garments in a dresser. It is a little cloth bag filled with some sweet smelling fragrance material like potpourri (i.e. dried flowers, herbs, citrus fruits). Uses Scented sachets are for containing odorous substances to be laid among handkerchiefs to perfume them. They are also used to make undergarments and outer garments sweet smelling as well as placed amongst linens. Scented sachets are also hung in closets and cupboards. They are also put into briefcases and luggage. Some are used in stationary packets and others are put under pillows to help one sleep. Scented sachets are "sweet bags" (an old name for a small sachet cloth bag) and are put in automobiles, clothes dryers, clothes closets, inside or about children's stuffed animals, on the backs of chairs, and on doorknobs. Sachets with herbs like hops and lavender act as a sedative. These type of sachets are often put in closets and dresser drawers for their scents. In 1606 Ram's booklet Little Dodoen it gave a sachet formula to take to bed to help one Some "dream pillow" types of scented sachets (i.e. "hop pillows") are made with sleep inducing ingredients like hops, chamomile, valerian, skullcap, and lavender that help promote sleep. These scented sachets of aromatic herbs are also referred to as "herb pillows" or "sleep pillows" and are designed to overcome sleeplessness. sleep: Take dry rose leaves keep them in a glass which will keep them sweet and then take powder of mints, powder of cloves in a grosse powder. Put the same to the Rose leaves then put all these together in a bag and take that to bed with you and it will cause you to sleep, and it is

46 good to smell unto at other times. Certain herbs used in these type sachet "sleep pillows", like hops, have a soporific and a slight narcotic effect. These herb filled sachets are even called "dreamtime pillows". There are formulas using rosemary seeds to fill sachets and these are to be hung in a bedroom to promote sleep. The traditional method to treat insomnia with herb filled sachets of hops or lavender is to place them in, under or near your sleeping pillow.the "dream pillow" or "sleep pillow" sachet concept has been used for decades to help overcome sleeplessness. These "sleep pillows" have a therapeutic effect and hops as an ingredient to this type of sachet are considered best at inducing sleep. One type of "sleep pillow" sachet recipe by herb and flower author Penny Black calls for violets, rose petals, rosemary, tonka bean, vanilla bean, and a drop of lemon oil. Types Scented sachets are many times homemade and come in many sizes, styles, shapes and fragrances. A typical size would be approximately 4 inches square or thereabouts - some as small as a one inch ball and others as large as a 8 inch square. Many are in the shape of a plump little pillow. The potpourri mix put inside the sachet can be herbal items or flower parts. Some sachets that are made from spices like allspice, aniseed, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, and vanilla beans are referred to as "spiced sachets." A scented sachet used as a pot holder that is stuffed with allspice, cinnamon and cloves will release an apple pie smell when a hot dish is put on it. Other scented sachets are made from the winter savory, lavender, rosemary, tops of hyssop, chippings of cassia ligna, cedar, and sassafras. This type is not only used to make garments sweet smelling but keep away destructive insects and worms. Sachets with dried moth-repellent herbs like wormwood, southernwood, costmary, lavender, pennyroyal, lemon verbena rosemary, rue, sage and tansy are called "moth bags."

47 A sachet base can be made where you can add certain aromatic or perfumed oils later to make various sachets. Some types of sachets are called "Patchouli Sachet" (that goes with woolens and blankets); "Flordia Sachet" (which ingredients are fruity); "Oakasia Sachet"; "Orange-rose Sachet"; and "Sweet Bag of linen". Some scented sachets even have names like ""Heliotrope Sachet" and "Tonka Bean Sachet." Others still are called "Provencal pillows", "Country pillows" and "Pillows for Love". Some are even made into Sweet Bag necklaces. Some are decorated with embroidery, beads, buttons, ribbons, and fancy cloth. The oldest formula printed for a list of ingredients in an America scented sacket comes from a Colonial Williamsburg book, The Compleat Housewife, published in 1742.

48

49 Chapter 6 Scented Water Scented water with rose petals

50 Rosemary scented water is popular.

51 Lavender scented water is popular. Scented water, odoriferous water or sweet water, is a water with a sweet aromatic smell. It is made of flowers or herbs and is the precursor of the modern day perfume. Scented waters are also used in making other products such as pomanders and body care products. Ingredients Some of the flowers and herbs used to make scented water are: jasmine lemon lavender - from the Latin word lavare, meaning to wash.

52 myrtle - one of the original types. orange blossoms - one of the best known waters. Orange flower water is also used in various cuisines, to flavor desserts and to mask the taste of hard water. roses - distilled are used in cosmetics. Rose water, a byproduct of traditional rose oil production, is prominently used in desserts in Middle Eastern and North Indian cuisine. rosemary - believed to refuse to grow in flower gardens of evil people. Hygiene In Medieval times a scented water was used for hygiene by a person washing their hands with it before meals, since many meals were forkless. The wealthy of Medieval times had their linen clothes boiled in scented water. Varahamihira (6th century) was using scented water to clean his toothbrushes. Just prior to Marie Antoinette's execution in 1793 one of her servants was able to smuggle her some minimal need requests, one being some scented water for her teeth. Hippocrates mentions scented water in his medical practice: Medical Then dipping (BAPTW) into oil of roses or Egyptian oil, apply it through the day, and, as soon as it stings, take it away, and baptize (BAPTIDZO) it, again, into woman s milk and Egyptian oil, and apply during the night and rinse with sweet scented water and apply tallow. Hippocrates, ii, 710 Washing waters Boccaccio in his Decameron mentions scented washing waters: Without permitting anyone else to lay a hand on him, the lady herself washed Salabaetto all over with soap scented with musk and cloves. She then had herself washed and rubbed down by the slaves. This done, the slaves brought two fine and very white sheets, so scented with roses that they seemed like roses; the slaves wrapped Salabaetto in one and the lady in the other and then carried them both on their shoulders to the bed... They then took from the basket silver vases of great beauty, some of which were filled with rose water, some with orange water, some with jasmine water, and some with lemon water, which they sprinkled upon them.

53 Refreshment It was a custom in the Roman Empire for ampitheathres to be furnished with scented water jet fountain sprays for refreshing the spectators. The overhead awning (velarium) shielding the spectators for the Colosseum was saturated with scented water for dripping fragrant water on spectators' heads to keep them cool. Perfume Henry Percy, 6th Earl of Northumberland in had various scented waters made for him, which consisted of his usage of over a gallon each week for the year. In the 1571 estate inventory of John Brodocke, an apothecary in Southampton, lists 32 types of scented water that he had as some of the items in his shop. In 17th century Constantinople the Venetians and Genoese had apothecary shops that had merchants of scented water including rose water. Scented waters were still being used into the 19th century of the wealthy nobles in Egypt as a type of perfume. It was an Egyptian custom then to sprinkle guests with rose water or orange-flower water after dinner just before they were to go home. Scented rose water is and has been used from time to time for cooking and flavoring Even though it is said by scholars that the art of perfumery has it roots in antiquity, the city of Montpellier has self established itself as the birthplace of perfumery. In the 18th century they honored guests of the city with scented water and other 'gifts of fragrance'. There are even perfume manuals that describe Montpellier perfumes as being "a la mode de Montpellier" because of extra ingredients used that enhance their fragrances. Cooking foods in various recipes. Rose water is used in Greek cuisine. Sensual In Medieval times scented water was used for sensual pleasures. Religious In Medieval times scented water was used at baptisms. Formulas of scented water Rose water Mary Hooper in her book called Petals in the Ashes about the Great Fire of 1666 explains that the first step in making "rose water" is to gather together 3 or 4 full roses. These roses should not have been treated in any way with toxic pesticide for obvious reasons.

54 One is to then take a pint of water and put into a saucepan. Then heat the water with the roses in it gently, not allowing it to boil. You are to cook the rose petals until they become transparent. After that happens, allow the cooked rose water to cool. Then drain through a sieve forcing the water to go through the rose petals. The resulting "rose water" is to be refrigerated. The scented water then is used as a cooling agent on the body as well as the face. Scented bath water Hooper explains that scented water to bathe in can be made of dried herbs. She explains the idea of making such a scented water is to put 8 tablespoons of dried herbs in a pan of 1 pint of water and simmer for 10 minutes. This water then is to be allowed to cooled. Then it is to be strained to remove all the herb pieces. For the actual bath then a quarter of this scented water is to be put into your bath, highlighted with fresh flower petals on top of the bath water. She explains roses and lovage have a cleansing and deodorising effect. For a refreshing effect she recommends to use rosemary and hyssop. For a relaxing effect to use lime flowers and lavender. For a soothing effect use camomile and lemon balm.

55 Chapter 7 Toilet Water Bottles of toilet water Toilet water (eau de toilette in French) is a lightly scented perfume used as a skin freshener. It is also referred to as "aromatic waters" and has a high alcohol content. It is usually applied directly to the skin after bathing or shaving. It is considered a "weak"

56 perfume. Toilet water is defined as a dilute perfume. It was originally composed of alcohol and various volatile oils. Toilet waters are usually named after a principal ingredient; some being Geranium Water, Lavender Water, Lilac Water, Violet Water, Spirit of Myrcia and 'eau de Bretfeld'. Because of this "toilet water" is sometimes referred to as "flower water." It often times used as a "body splash" that is applied liberally, especially after showering. Types of alcohol based perfumes Perfume formulas 1910 The concentration by percent/volume of perfume oil is as follows: Perfume extract (Extrait): 15-40% (IFRA: typical 20%) aromatic compounds Eau de Parfum (EdP), Parfum de Toilette (PdT): 10-20% (typical ~15%) aromatic compounds. Sometimes listed as "eau de perfume" or "millésime". Eau de Toilette (EdT): 5-15% (typical ~10%) aromatic compounds Eau de Cologne (EdC): Chypre citrus type perfumes with 3-8% (typical ~5%) aromatic compounds Splash and After shave: 1-3% aromatic compounds Perfume oils are often diluted with a solvent, though this is not always the case, and its necessity is disputed. By far the most common solvent for perfume oil dilution is ethanol or a mixture of ethanol and water. Perfume has a mixture of about 10-20% perfume oils mixed with alcohol (acting as a diffusing agent delivering the fragrant odor) and a trace

57 of water. Colognes have about 3-5% perfume oil mixed with 80-90% alcohol with about 5 to 15 percent water in the mix. Originally, eau de cologne was a mixture of citrus oils from such fruits as lemons, oranges, tangerines, limes, and grapefruits. These were combined with such substances as lavender and neroli (orange-flower oil). Toilet water has the least amount of perfume oil mixture among the three main liquid "perfumery" categories. It has only about 2 to 8 percent of some type of perfume oil and 60-80% alcohol dispersent with water making up the difference. Toilet waters are a less concentrated form of these above types of alcohol based perfumes. Traditionally cologne is usually made of citrus oils and fragrances, while toilet waters are not limited to this specification. Eaux and Eau The word eaux, in perfumery, is defined as a solution of spirited fragrant essential oils with or without the addition of other fragrant substances. It can also be distilled waters with the smells of flowers. Eau de cologne, eau de lavande, eau de bouquet are examples of the first; and eau de rose, eau de fleurs d'oranges are examples of the second. Toilet waters with the word eaux in them are confined to imports to the United States from the south of France and Italy. English toilet waters with "eau" or "eaux" in the name are generally considered inferior to those from France and Italy. Health benefits Some toilet waters are considered restorative skin toners and have some medical benefits. The journal Medical Record reports that a toilet water spray restores energies lost in business, social, and domestic situations. History shows that toilet waters have been used for cosmetic purposes. During the fourteenth through sixteenth centuries a type of toilet water called "plague waters" was supposed to drive away the bubonic plague. Roots of men's toilet water King of France Louis XIV ( ) used a concoction of scents called "heavenly water" to perfume his shirts with toilet water. It consisted of aloewood, musk, orange flower, rose water and other spices. Roots of women's toilet water Cleopatra seduced Mark Antony on the banks of the Berdan River using perfumes and toilet waters. Wilhelmina of the Netherlands used an entire champagne bottle of toilet water in her 7 minute baths. Elizabeth of Russia was partial to having her toilet water made of violets picked near the onset of darkness specifically near the town of Grasse. In the fourteenth century Hungarian toilet water, predecessor of eau de cologne, was produced. Queen Elisabeth of Hungary ( ) had created a fragrant oil mix with alcohol that evaporated slowly on her skin. Hungary Water was the first toilet water developed. Legend has it that when 70 year old Queen Elisabeth of Hungary received this

58 new 'toilet water' her poor health was reversed. She was then a very healthy queen that the king of Poland proposed to. This toilet water was called "eau de la reine de hongrie" because it was based on rosemary. Types of toilet water Carbolic Toilet Water crystallized carbolic acid, 10 parts; essence of millefleurs, 1 part; tincture of quillaya sapouaria, 50 parts; water, 1,000 parts. Carmelite water - a toilet water of lemon balm, orange flower, angelica root, and spices prepared for Charles V of France, first made in 1379 by the nuns of a Carmelite abbey. Carnation Toilet Water - extract of Jasmine 2.5 pints, extract of Orange Flower 2.5 pints, extract of Rose 5 pints, tincture of Vanilla 20 ounces, Oil of Pink (synthetic) 2 ounces. Creole Toilet Water - to 6.75 ounces of orris root cut in small pieces put 1.5 pint of French brandy. Allow this mix to stand for 2 weeks, stirring frequently. Then filter the mix and add 3 pints of French brandy and 3 drops of oil of orange blossoms. Add 0.75 fluid ounce of oil of geranium. Distill and add a little coumarin essence. Eau de lavand ambre - a favorite with Spanish women who use it in their hair as well as on the skin after bathing. Florida Water - based on the nineteenth century formula for a commercially prepared toilet water that mixes floral essential oils. The idea of the name makes reference to the Fountain of Youth. Geranium Toilet Water - oil of rose geranium, 2 ounces; tincture of orris root, 2 ounces; tincture of musk, 1 droop; rose water, 8 ounces: alcohol, 4 pints. Heliotrope Toilet Water - heliotropine, 2 drops; rose oil, 15 minims; bergamot oil, a half drop; neroli oil, 5 minims; alcohol, 10 ounces; water, 6 ounces. Home made toilet waters - there are various styles, including lavender toilet water and rose toilet water. Honey water - an old-time English toilet water. The British Pharmaceutical Codex gives the formula. Jasmine toilet water - made with spirits of cologne, jasmine, and alcohol. Kananga Water - is a "holy water" used for purification in revival ceremonies. Lavender water - a formula called "upper Ten" consists of 1 fluid ounce of oil of lavender, 8 fluid ounces of of deodorized alcohol, 3 fluid ounces of of rose water, and 80 grains of carbonate of magnesia. Nosegay - distilled honey water with cloves, lavender and neroli. Oriental Toilet Water - an extensive list of ingredients is given in the Useful and Practical Notes section of National Druggist. Rose water toilet water - extract of rose 1 pint, of tuberose 1 pint, of cassia 1 pint, of jasmine 4 ounces, tincture of civet 3 ounces. Viennese Cosmetic Toilet Water - bruised almonds, 15 parts; water of orange flower, 62 parts; water of roses, 62 parts. Rub up the almonds with the waters, allow to stand. Later add borate of soda, 1 part; spirit of benzoin, 2 parts. Dissolve.

59 White Rose Toilet Water - one ounce of triple extract of white rose, 3 drops of oil of rose, 3 drops of oil of rose geranium, 26 ounces of cologne spirits, and 6 ounces of hot water. Hugh C. Muldoonin submitted various toilet water formulas he called "Own-make Toilet Specialties" to the Bulletin Of Pharmacy in 1917.

60 Chapter 8 Perfumer & Fragrance lamp Perfumer A mockup of a perfumer's organ (lacks a weighing scale). The organ is traditionally where a perfumer works on the composition of various perfumes, however the weighing and blending of perfume samples are now mainly done by technicians in larger flavour and fragrance companies. A perfumer is a term used for an expert on creating perfume compositions, sometimes referred to affectionately as a Nose (French: le nez) due to their fine sense of smell and skill in producing olfactory compositions. The perfumer is effectively an artist who is

61 trained in depth on the concepts of fragrance aesthetics and who is capable of conveying abstract concepts and moods with fragrance compositions. At the most rudimentary level, a perfumer must have a keen knowledge of a large variety of fragrance ingredients and their smells, and be able to distinguish each of the fragrance ingredients whether alone or in combination with other fragrances. As well, they must know how each ingredient reveals itself through time with other ingredients. The job of the perfumer is very similar to that of flavourists, who compose smells and flavourants for many commercial food products. Training Most past perfumers did not undergo professional training in the art and many learned their craft as apprentices under another perfumer in their employment as a perfume technician (in charge of blending formulas) or chemist. A direct entrance into the profession is rare and those who do typically enter it through family contacts. Such apprenticeships last around 3 years. Employment Until recently, professional schools open to the public for training perfumers did not exist. In 1970 ISIPCA became the world's only school in perfumery. The candidates must endure a demanding entrance examination and must have taken university-level courses in organic chemistry. Givaudan and International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF) have perfumery schools as part of their companies, but students must be employees of the company and must be recommended by their superiors for acceptance into the school. Courses for perfumery are also offered by PerfumersWorld and the University of Plymouth (UK) offers a BA (Bachelor of Arts) course in Business & Perfumery. Most perfumers are employed by several large fragrance corporations in the world including Mane, Firmenich, IFF, Givaudan, Takasago, and Symrise. Some perfumers work exclusively for a perfume house or in their own company, but these cases are not as common. The perfumer typically begins a perfume project with a brief by the perfumer's employer or an outside customer. The customers to the perfumer or their employers, are typically fashion houses or large corporations of various industries. Each brief will contain the specifications for the desired perfume, and will describe in often poetic or abstract terms what the perfume should smell like or what feelings it should evoke in those who smell it, along with a maximum per litre price of the perfume oil concentrate. This allowance, along with the intended application of the perfume, will determine what aromatic ingredients will be used in the perfume composition.

62 The perfumer will then go through the process of blending multiple perfume mixtures and will attempt to capture the desired feelings specified in the brief. After presenting the perfume mixtures to the customers, the perfumer may "win" the brief with their approval. They proceed to work with the customer, often with the direction provided by a panel or artistic director, which guides and edits the modifications on the composition of the perfume. This process typically spans several months to several years, going over many iterations and may involve cultural and public surveys to tailor a perfume to a particular market. The perfume composition will then be either used to enhance another product as a functional fragrance (shampoos, make-up, detergents, car interiors, etc.) or marketed and sold directly to the public as a fine fragrance. Alternatively, the perfumer may simply be inspired to create a perfume and produce something that later becomes marketable or successfully wins a brief. This is more common in smaller or independent perfume houses. Fragrance Lamp Crystal Fragrance Lampe A fragrance lamp, also known as a perfume lamp, effusion lamp or catalytic lamp is a catalytic diffusion lamp that disperses scented oil using a heated stone attached to a cotton wick. The catalytic combustion wick was originally developed in the 19th century for use in hospitals and mortuaries. A Frenchman named Maurice Berger was the first to receive a patent, (in 1897) and the company he founded, Lampe Berger, is the oldest worldwide manufacturer of the device though there are a growing number of companies making such lamps. The lamps are sold on the premise that molecules that cause bad smells are inherently unstable and the fragrance lamp's flameless, low-temperature catalytic combustion speeds up the decomposition process, converting odor molecules into harmless substances (such as carbon dioxide and water). While the lamps are no longer considered effective for use in hospitals, they have remained popular as air fresheners. The fragrance lamp's process is initiated by lighting the stone burner seated at the mouth of the lamp. After a few minutes the flame is extinguished by blowing it out, but the

63 heated burner remains active as the flameless, low-temperature catalytic combustion process and diffused aromatics. The lamp does not operate with an open flame, making the fragrance lamp much safer to operate than scented candles. Its lower operating temperature also means that, unlike scented candles, the aromatics are diffused very efficiently into the ambient air without being burned. One of the by-products of these fragrance lamps is low-level ozone, which has been attributed to the "purification process" of the lamps in eliminating odor. In the last year a newer kind of catalytic burner was introduced called the Platinum Wick. This wick is all metal and produces the same diffusion effect with a catalytic screen that encircles the top of the wick. It is difficult to verify the claim that scientific evidence supports the use of these lamps as it is difficult, if not impossible, to find the relevant research. Hazard Warning Take extreme caution while refilling the fragrance lamp. Make sure there is The lamp fuel contains 90% isopropyl alcohol and should be regarded as a highly flammable liquid. Furthermore, to start the catalytic wick according to the instruction it is necessary to light the catalytic burner with a flame and let it burn for approximately three minutes until it reaches the correct operating temperature. At this point the flame should be extinguished in order for the oil to be diffused. Precautions should be taken to avoid any possible hazards: Make sure the fuel container is in perfect condition, perfectly tight and not leaking. When not in use, make sure the airtight cap is on at all times to prevent evaporation (alcohol vapour/air mixture is highly flammable). Do not leave unattended during operation. Do not use in an unventilated room. Do not inhale, ingest, or use the lamp fuel in any other manner. ventilation, and that there is no open flame. In case of any spillage, wipe the area carefully before lighting the lamp. Do not fill lamps on wooden furniture or use a lamp without a dish underneath it. The fuel will damage furniture. Potential Hazard from Ozone Ozone has been proven to trigger asthma, causing breathing difficulty and fatal to those in bad health condition. Ozone will be able to remove smell, virus and bacteria only in high concentration which is beyond public health standards. Ozone is very reactive; it will react with many chemical compounds and form a variety of aldehydes. In an experiment performed in 1992, total concentration of organic chemicals in the air increased rather than decreased after the introduction of ozone.

64 Chapter 9 Ittar chemicals and so the problems faced in the West by perfume lovers are irrelevant to most Ittar also known as attara is a natural perfume oil derived from botanical sources. Most commonly these oils are taken from the botanical material through hydro or steam distillation. Oils can also be expressed by chemical means but generally natural perfumes which qualify as Ittar/Attars are distilled naturally. The oils obtained from the herbs flowers and wood are generally distilled into a wood base such as sandalwood and then aged. The aging period can last from one to ten years depending on the botanicals used and the results desired. These all-natural perfumes are highly concentrated and therefore are usually offered for sale in small quantities and have traditionally been offered in decorated crystal cut type bottles or small jeweled decanters. Ittars are popular throughout the Middle East, the Far East and India as well as Pakistan. Ittars have been used in the entire Eastern world for thousands of years. These 100% pure and natural perfumes are free of alcohol and Eastern perfume lovers. Natural perfumes are affordable because they are so concentrated that a small bottle will last the user several weeks if not months and there are no ill side effects to using natural perfumes. Due to the purity and the nature of oils, there is very little chance of spoilage unless a food based carrier oil is used to cut the concentrated pure oil. Some of the first lovers of Ittars were the Mughal nobles of India. Jasmine ittar was the favorite perfume of the Nizams of the Hyderabad state. Traditionally in the Eastern world it was a customary practice of nobility to offer ittar to their guests at the time of their departure. The ittars are traditionally given in ornate tiny crystal cut bottles called as itardans. This tradition of giving a scent to one's guests continues to this day in many parts of the Eastern world. Among Sufi worshipers the use of Ittars during meditation circles and dances is quite common. Most ittars are alcohol-free and are used by many Muslim men and women. Ittar has long been considered one of the most treasured of material possessions and Prophet

65 Muhammad has been compared to Ittar as one of the most beloved of gifts given to mankind. Ittars are also used used among Hindu, Buddhist and Seihk meditation practices. History The word 'attar', 'ittar' or 'othr' is basically an Arabic word which means 'scent'; this in turn is believed to have been derived from the Persian word Atr, meaning 'fragrance'. The story of Indian perfumes is as old as the civilization itself. Archaeological evidence shows the earliest inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent held plants in great reverence. With the passage of time, scented oils were extracted by pressing, pulverizing or distilling aromatic vegetable and animal produce. Early indications of this activity are available from the perfume jars and terracotta containers of the Indus Valley civilization, where archeological work has revealed round copper stills, used for the distillation process that are at least five-thousand years old (reference req.). These stills are called degs. Following the seasons of the flowers, traditional ittar-makers, with their degs, traveled all over India to make their fresh ittars on-the-spot. Even now, a few traditional ittar-makers still travel with their degs to be close to the harvest. Their equipment has changed little, if at all. of rose water began perhaps in the nineteenth century AD. The earliest distillation of ittar A large number of references to cosmetics and perfumes in Sanskrit literature were found like in the Brhatsamhita is a 6th century Sanskrit encyclopedia by Varahamihira (505 AD 587 AD). Cosmetics and perfumes making were mainly practised for the purpose of worship, sale and sensual enjoyment. Gandhayukti gave recipes for making scents. It gives a list of eight aromatic ingredients used for making scents. They were: Rodhara, Usira, Bignonia, Aguru, Musta, Vana, Priyangu, and Pathya. The Gandhayukti also gave recipes for mouth perfumes, bath powders, incense and talcum powder. The manufacture was mentioned in the Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita. The Harshacharita, written in 7th century AD in northern India, mentions use of fragrant agarwood oil. In ancient India, ittar was prepared by placing precious flowers and sacred plants into a water or vegetable oil. Slowly the plants and flowers would infuse the water/oil with their delicate fragrance. The plant and flower material would then be removed and a symphony of their aromatic beauty would be held in the ittar. These ittars were then worn as a sacred perfume or to anoint. Ittar figures into some of the romantic stories of a bygone era. Its patrons included great poets like the legendary Mirza Ghalib. When Ghalib met his beloved in the winter, he rubbed his hands and face with ittar hina. In Ain-e-Akbari, Abul Fazal, has mentioned that Akbar used ittar daily and burnt incense sticks in gold and silver censers. A princess's bath was incomplete without incense and ittar. A very popular ittar with the Mughal princes was ood, prepared in Assam.

66 Situated on the banks of the sacred River Ganges, 80 km from Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh, is the now almost forgotten town of Kannauj, well known in ancient time as 'Harsha Vardhan City'. Today it prides itself as the 'Attar City' or the perfume city of India. Kannauj in Uttar Pradesh India is a major producing city of ittar. Here, there is a legend on how the first ittars were made in the area. The forest dwelling Faqir's and Sadhu ascetics used certain perfumed jungle herbs and roots in their bonfires during the winters. The shepherds who grazed their sheep in that region, found the perfume lingering in the burnt wood, long after the ascetics left the place. Word spread about this incident and some enterprising people, searched and found the fragrant herbs and roots. Then the experiments on ittar began and the first ittars to be made were Rose and Hina. No Name Scientific Name Part Distilled 1, Rose ittar Rosa damascena Flower 2, Motia/Jasmin ittar Jasmine sambac Flower 3, Mitti ittar Baked earth Earth from river 4, Kewda ittar Pandanus odoritissimus Flower 5, Saffron ittar Crocus sativa Stigma 6, Agarwood/Oud ittar Aquilaria agallocha Various parts 7, Gul Hina ittar Lawsonia alba Flower 8, Genda/Merigold ittar Tagetes minuta Flower 9, Champa ittar Michelia champaca Flower 10, Bakul ittar Mimusops elengi Flower 11, Blue Lotus ittar Nymphaea caerulea Flower 12, Pink Lotus ittar Nelumbo nucifera Flower 13, White Lotus ittar Nelumbo nucifera Flower 14, Tuberose/Rajniganda ittar Polianthes tuberosa Flower 15, White Water Lily ittar Nymphaea ampla Flower 16, Zafari ittar Tagetes sp Flower 17, Shamana ittar compound of fragrant spices, herbs, woods Various parts 18, Amber ittar Pinus Succinifera , Chameli ittar Jasminum Grandiflorum Flower 20, Gulmohar ittar Painciana Regia Flower 21, Juhi ittar Jasmine Auriculatum Flower 22, Islamic Bakhur ittar Melaleuca Alternifolia , Frangipani ittar Plumeria Ruera ----

67 24, Khus ittar Vetiveria Zizanoides Roots 25, Mogra ittar Abelmoschus Moschus Flower 26, Loban ittar Styrax Benzoin Various parts 27, Nakh Choya ittar Citrus Bigardia Flower 28, Davana ittar Artemesia Pallens Leaves Types of Ittars Ittars may be broadly categorized into following types of flavour or ingredients used. Floral Ittars Ittars manufactured from single species of flower are coming under this category. These are :- Gulab ex Rosa damascena or Rosa Edword Kewra ex Pandanus odoratissimus Motia ex Jasminum sambac Gulhina ex lawsonia inermis Chameli ex Jasminum grandiflorum Kadam ex Anthoephalus cadamba Herbal Ittars - Ittars manufactured from combination of floral, herbal & spices come under this category. Hina and its various forms viz., Shamama, Shamam tul Amber, Musk Amber and Musk Hina. Ittars which are neither floral nor herbal also come under this category. Ittar Mitti falls under this category and is produced by distillation of baked earth over base material. Ittars can also be classified based on their effect on human body such as Warm Ittars' Ittars such as Musk, Amber, Kesar (Saffron), Oud, are used in winters, they increase the body temperature. Cool Ittars' like Rose, Jasmine, Khus, Kewda, Mogra, are used in summers and are cooling for the body. Uses The Indian ittars in the past was used by the elite, particularly kings and queens. Also it is used in Hindu temples. Today it is used in numerous ways:

68 1. Pan Masala and Gutka is the largest consumer of Indian ittars. The reason for using it is its extraordinary tenacity along with characteristic to withstand with tobacco note. The ittars used are Rose, Kewra, Mehndi, Hina, Shamama, Mitti, Marigold etc. 2. Tobacco is smaller segment for ittar consumption as compared to above industry. The ittars used are mainly kewra & Rose. Along with Pan masala & Gutkha it contributes to more the 75% of ittar consumption. 3. Betel nut is smaller segment for ittar consumption as compared to above two industry. The ittars used are mainly Kewra & Rose. 4. It is used by many people as a personal perfume, particularly by Muslims due to absence of alcohol. 5. Ittars have the application in pharmaceutical industry. 6. Ittars of Rose & Kewra are used in traditional Indian sweets, for imparting flavour. Safety & Application of Ittar Alcohol (common solvent for most perfumes) causes the perfume to evaporate much faster sometimes unto as much as times faster. This causes the first impression of the perfume to be overwhelming to human senses, but it soon evaporates and loses power. Given its natural derivation, ittar lasts a long time. Body heat only intensifies its smell. A major difference between synthetic perfumes and ittar is that the oil-based ittar is worn directly on your body. The inside of the wrist, behind the ears, the inside of elbow joints, back of the neck and a few other parts of your anatomy are directly dabbed with ittar. A small drop is enough to be used as a fragrance on the body. A few drops can be added to water and used with aromatic vapour lamps. A few drops of some ittars are used with cold drinks, such as milk, to give fragrance. Storage & Shelf life Ittar has a permanent shelf life and some ittars become stronger and smell better when they are older. Future of Ittars Due to increasing cost of Indian Sandalwood and high cost of production of ittars has had an ill effect on existence of this industry. Competition comes in the form of chemical based perfume products, which are cheaper compared to natural ittars.

69 Chapter 10 Incense Burning incense Incense (Latin: incendere, "to burn") is composed of aromatic biotic materials, which release fragrant smoke when burned. The term "incense" refers to the substance itself, rather than to the odor that it produces. It is used in religious ceremonies, ritual purification, aromatherapy, meditation, for creating a mood, and for masking bad odours.the use of incense may have originated in Ancient Egypt, where the gum resins

70 and oleo gum resins of aromatic trees were imported from the Arabian and Somali coasts to be used in religious ceremonies. Incense is composed of aromatic plant materials, often combined with essential oils. The forms taken by incense differ with the underlying culture, and have changed with advances in technology and increasing diversity in the reasons for burning it. Incense can generally be separated into two main types: "indirect-burning" and "direct-burning." Indirect-burning incense (or "non-combustible incense") is not capable of burning on its own, and requires a separate heat source. Direct-burning incense (or "combustible incense") is lit directly by a flame and then fanned or blown out, leaving a glowing ember that smoulders and releases fragrance. Direct-burning incense comes in several forms, including incense sticks (or "joss sticks"), cones, and pyramids.

71 History Incense sticks at Po Lin Monastery, Hong Kong The use of incense dates back to biblical times and may have originated in Sumerian and Babylonian cultures, where the gum - resins of aromatic trees were imported from the Arabian and Somali coasts to be used in religious ceremonies. It was also used by the Pharaohs, not only to counteract unpleasant odours, but also to drive away demons and gratify the presence of the gods, as they believed. The Babylonians used incense while offering prayers to divining oracles. The Indus Civilization used incense burners. Evidence suggests oils were used mainly for their aroma. Incense spread from there to Greece and Rome. Brought to Japan in the 6th

72 century by Korean Buddhist monks, who used the mystical aromas in their purification rites, the delicate scents of Koh (high-quality Japanese incense) became a source of amusement and entertainment with nobles in the Imperial Court during the Heian Era 200 years later. During the 14th century Shogunate, samurai warriors would perfume their helmets and armor with incense to achieve an aura of invincibility. It wasn't until the Muromachi Era during the 15th and 16th century that incense appreciation (Kōdō) spread to the upper and middle classes of Japanese society. Composition Some commonly used raw incense and incense-making materials (from top down, left to right) Makko powder ( 抹香 ; Machilus thunbergii), Borneol camphor (Dryobalanops aromatica), Sumatra Benzoin (Styrax benzoin), Omani frankincense (Boswellia sacra), Guggul (Commiphora wightii), Golden Frankincense (Boswellia papyrifera), the new world Tolu balsam (Myroxylon toluifera) from South America, Somali myrrh (Commiphora myrrha), Labdanum (Cistus villosus), Opoponax (Commiphora opoponax), and white Indian sandalwood powder (Santalum album) Throughout history, a wide variety of materials have been used in making incense. Historically there has been a preference for using locally available ingredients. For example, sage and cedar were used by the indigenous peoples of North America. This

73 was a preference, and ancient trading in incense materials from one area to another comprised a major part of commerce along the Silk Road and other trade routes, one notably called the Incense Route. The same could be said for the techniques used to make incense. Local knowledge and tools were extremely influential on the style, but methods were also influenced by migrations of foreigners, among them clergy and physicians who were both familiar with incense arts. Natural solid aromatics The following fragrance materials can be employed in either direct- or indirect-burning incense. They are commonly used in religious ceremonies, and many of them are considered quite valuable. Essential oils or other extracted fractions of these materials may also be isolated and used to make incense. The resulting incense is sometimes considered to lack the aromatic complexity or authenticity of incense made from raw materials not infused or fortified with extracts. Woods and barks Aloeswood Cedar Sandalwood Cypress Juniper Cassia Cinnamon Seeds and fruits Coriander Cardamom Juniper Nutmeg Star anise Vanilla Resins and gums Amber Bdellium Benzoin Copal Frankincense Myrrh Labdanum Dragon's blood (a plant resin) Mastic (plant resin) Storax Galbanum Elemi Camphor Sandarac Guggul (Indian Myrrh) Opoponax Tolu balsam Leaves Patchouli Sage Bay Tea Balsam Roots and rhizomes Vetiver Orris Calamus Spikenard Galangal Costus Flowers and buds Clove Lavender Saffron Rose Animal-derived materials Ambergris Civet Musk Operculum

74 Combustible base A Räucherkerzchen - A charcoal-based incense cone The combustible base of a direct burning incense mixture not only binds the fragrant material together but also allows the produced incense to burn with a self-sustained ember, which propagates slowly and evenly through an entire piece of incense with such regularity that it can be used to mark time. The base is chosen such that it does not produce a perceptible smell. Commercially, two types of incense base predominate: Fuel and oxidizer mixtures: Charcoal or wood powder forms the fuel for the combustion. Gums such as Gum Arabic or Gum Tragacanth are used to bind the mixture together while an oxidizer such as sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate sustains the burning of the incense. Fragrant materials are combined into the base

75 prior to formation as in the case of powdered incense materials or after formation as in the case of essential oils. The formula for the charcoal-based incense is superficially similar to black powder, though it lacks the sulfur. Natural plant-based binders: Mucilaginous material, which can be derived from many botanical sources, is mixed with fragrant materials and water. The mucilage from the wet binding powder holds the fragrant material together while the cellulose in the powder combusts to form a stable ember when lit. The dry binding powder usually comprises about 10% of the dry weight in the finished incense. This includes: o Makko ( 抹香 末香 incense powder): made from the bark of various trees from the Persea such as Persea thunbergii (Jpn. 椨の木 ; たぶのき ; Tabuno-ki) o Xiangnan pi ( 香楠皮 ): made from Phoebe genus trees such as Phoebe nanmu ( 楠木 ), Persea zuihoensis ( 香楠 ). Types o o Jigit: a resin based binder used in India Laha or Dar: bark based powders used in Nepal, Tibet, and other East Asian countries. Incense materials are available in various forms and degrees of processing. They can generally be separated into "direct-burning" and "indirect-burning" types depending on use. Preference for one form or another varies with culture, tradition, and personal taste. Although the production of direct- and indirect-burning incense are both blended to produce a pleasant smell when burned, the two differ in their composition due to the former's requirement for even, stable, and sustained burning.

76 Indirect-burning Incense Indirect-burning frankincense on a hot coal Indirect-burning incense, also called "non-combustible incense", is a combination of aromatic ingredients that are not prepared in any particular way or encouraged into any particular form, leaving it mostly unsuitable for direct combustion. The use of this class of incense requires a separate heat source since it does not generally kindle a fire capable of burning itself and may not ignite at all under normal conditions. This incense can vary in the duration of its burning with the texture of the material. Finer ingredients tend to burn more rapidly, while coarsely ground or whole chunks may be consumed very gradually as they have less total surface area. The heat is traditionally provided by charcoal or glowing embers.

77 In the West, the best known incense materials of this type are frankincense and myrrh, likely due to their numerous mentions in the Christian Bible. In fact, the word for "frankincense" in many European languages also alludes to any form of incense. Whole: The incense material is burned directly in its raw unprocessed form on top of coal embers. Powdered or granulated: The incense material is broken down into finer bits. This incense burns quickly and provides a short period of intense smells. Paste: The powdered or granulated incense material is mixed with a sticky and incombustible binder, such as dried fruit, honey, or a soft resin and then formed to balls or small pastilles. These may then be allowed to mature in a controlled environment where the fragrances can commingle and unite. Much Arabian incense, also called "Bukhoor" or "Bakhoor", is of this type (Bakhoor, actually refers to frankincense in both Lebanese and Arabic, and Japan has a history of kneaded incense, called nerikō or awasekō, using this method. Within the Eastern Orthodox Christian tradition, raw frankincense is ground into a fine powder and then mixed with various sweet-smelling essential oils.

78 Production Drying cored stick incense, Vietnam Indirect burning incense does not have any stringent requirements except for achieving a pleasant smell when lit. Mixture of incense materials can be combined by powdering the raw materials and then mixing them together with a binder to form pastes, which are then cut and dried into pellets. Incense of the Athonite Orthodox Christian tradition are made using similar methods by powdering frankincense or fir resin, mixing it with essential oils. Floral fragrances are the most common, but citrus such as lemon is not uncommon. The incense mixture is then rolled out into a slab approximately 1 cm thick and left until the slab has firmed. It is then

79 cut into small cubes, coated with clay powder to prevent adhesion, and allowed to fully harden and dry. The product visually resemble cubes of Loukoum. In Greece this rolled incense resin is called 'Moskolibano', and generally comes in either a pink or green colour denoting the fragrance, with pink being rose and green being jasmine. Direct-burning Incense Incense coils hanging from the ceiling of an East Asian temple Direct-burning incense also called "combustible incense", generally requires little preparation prior to its use. When lit directly by a flame (hence the appellation) and then fanned out, the glowing ember on the incense will continue to smoulder and burn away the rest of the incense without continued application of heat or flame from an outside source. This class of incense is made from a moldable substrate of fragrant finely ground (or liquid) incense materials and odourless binder. The composition must be adjusted to provide fragrance in the proper concentration and to ensure even burning. The following types of direct-burning incense are commonly encountered, though the material itself can take virtually any form, according to expediency or whimsy: Coil: Extruded and shaped into a coil without a core. This type of incense is able to burn for an extended period, from hours to days, and is commonly produced and used by Chinese culture

80 Cone: Incense in this form burns relatively fast. Incense cones were invented in Japan in the 1800s. Cored stick: This form of stick incense has a supporting core of bamboo. Higher quality varieties of this form have fragrant sandalwood cores. The core is coated by a thick layer of incense material that burns away with the core. This type of incense is commonly produced in India and China. When used for worship in Chinese folk religion, cored incensed sticks are sometimes known as "joss sticks". Solid stick: This stick incense has no supporting core and is completely made of incense material. Easily broken into pieces, it allows one to determine the specific amount of incense they wish to burn. This is the most commonly produced form of incense in Japan and Tibet. Loose powder: The incense powder used for making indirect burning incense is sometimes burned without further processing. They are typically packed into long trails on top of wood ash using a stencil and burned in special censers or incense clocks. Rope: The incense powder is rolled into paper sheets, which are then rolled into ropes, twisted tightly, then doubled over and twisted again, yielding a two-strand rope. The larger end is the bight, and may be stood vertically, in a shallow dish of sand or pebbles. The smaller (pointed) end is lit. This type of incense is highly transportable and stays fresh for extremely long periods. It has been used for centuries in Tibet and Nepal. Direct-burning incense of these forms is either extruded, pressed into forms, or coated onto a supporting material. The disks of powdered mugwort called 'moxa' sold in Chinese shops and herbalists are used in Traditional Chinese medicine for moxibustion treatment. Moxa tablets are not incenses; the treatment relies on heat rather than fragrance.

81 Joss sticks Picture of joss sticks in a Chinese temple So-called "joss sticks" are used for a variety of purposes associated with ritual and religious devotion in China and India. They are used in Chinese influenced East Asian and Southeast Asian countries, traditionally burned before the threshold of a home or business, before an image of a Chinese popular religion divinity or spirit of place, or in small and humble or large and elaborate shrine found at the main entrance to each and every village. Here the earth god is propitiated in the hope of bringing wealth and health to the village. They can also be burned in front of a door, or open window as an offering to heaven, or devas. The Chinese word "joss" for Joss (god) is derived from the Latin deus (god) via Portuguese.

82 Big Dragon joss sticks. Joss-stick burning is an everyday practice in traditional Chinese religion. There are many different types of joss sticks used for different purposes or on different festive days. Many of them are long and thin and are mostly colored yellow, red, and more rarely, black. Thick joss sticks are used for special ceremonies, such as funerals. Spiral joss sticks are also used on a regular basis, which are found hanging above temple ceilings, with burn times that are exceedingly long. In some states, such as Taiwan, Singapore, or Malaysia, where they celebrate the Ghost Festival, large, pillar-like dragon joss sticks are sometimes used. These generate such a massive amount of smoke and heat that they are only ever burned outside. Chinese incense sticks for use in popular religion are generally without aroma or only the slightest trace of jasmine or rose, since it is the smoke, not the scent, which is important in conveying the prayers of the faithful to heaven. They are composed of the dried powdered bark of a non-scented species of Cinnamon native to Cambodia, Cinnamomum cambodianum. Inexpensive packs of 300 are often found for sale in Chinese supermarkets. Despite the fact that they contain no sandalwood at all, they often include the Chinese character for sandalwood on the label, as a generic term for incense. Highly scented Chinese incense sticks are only used by Buddhists, who are in a minority in China. These are often quite expensive due to the use of large amounts of sandalwood,

83 aloeswood, or floral scents used. The Sandalwood used in Chinese incenses does not come from India, its native home, but rather from groves planted within Chinese territory. Production Poor quality incense sticks are uneven in thickness and the supporting cores remain after combustion Production is quite the opposite for direct-burning incense. In addition to producing a pleasant scent when burnt, this type of incense must burn completely to a cool white ash with a stable ember. Ideally the incense should burn slowly and evenly with no trace of the supporting core after burning. In order to obtain these desired combustion qualities, attention has to be paid to certain proportions in direct burning incense mixtures:

84 Oil content: Resinous materials such as myrrh and frankincense must not exceed the amount of dry materials in the mixture to such a degree that the incense will not smolder and burn. The higher the oil content relative to the dry mass, the less likely the mixture is to burn effectively. Typically the resinous or oily substances are balanced with "dry" materials such as wood, bark and leaf powders. Oxidizer quantity: The amount of chemical oxidizer in gum-bound incense must be carefully proportioned. If too little, the incense will not ignite, and if too much, the incense will burn too quickly and not produce fragrant smoke. Mixture density: Incense mixtures made with natural binders must not be combined with too much water in mixing, or over-compressed while being formed, which would result in either uneven air distribution or undesirable density in the mixture, causing the incense to burn unevenly, too slowly, or too quickly. Particulate size: The incense mixture has to be well pulverized with similarly sized particulates. Uneven and large particulates result in uneven burning and inconsistent aroma production when burned. Binder: Water-soluble binders such as "makko" ( 抹香 末香 ) have to be used in the right proportion to ensure that the incense mixture does not crumble when dry but also that the binder does not take up too much of the mixture. Compressed forms Some kinds of direct-burning incense are created from "incense blanks" made of unscented combustible dust immersed into any suitable kind of essential or fragrance oil. These are often sold in America by flea-market and sidewalk vendors who have developed their own styles. Such items are often known as "dipped" or "hand-dipped" incense. This form of incense requires the least skill and equipment to manufacture, since the blanks are pre-formed in China or South East Asia, then simply scented with essential oils. Incense mixtures can be extruded or pressed into shapes. Small quantities of water are combined with the fragrance and incense base mixture and kneaded into a hard dough. The incense dough is then pressed into shaped forms to create cone and smaller coiled incense, or forced through a hydraulic press for solid stick incense. The formed incense is then trimmed and slowly dried. Incense produced in this fashion has a tendency to warp or become misshapen when improperly dried, and as such must be placed in climatecontrolled rooms and rotated several times through the drying process. Cored sticks In the case of cored incensed sticks, several methods are employed to coat the sticks cores with incense mixture: Paste rolling: A wet, malleable paste of incense mixture is first rolled into a long, thin coil, using a paddle. Then, a thin stick is put next to the coil and the stick and paste are rolled together until the stick is centered in the mixture and the desired thickness is achieved. The stick is then cut to the desired length and dried.

85 Powder-coating: Powder-coating is used mainly to produce cored incense of either larger coil (up to 1 meter in diameter) or cored stick forms. A bundle of the supporting material (typically thin bamboo or sandalwood slivers) is soaked in water or a thin water/glue mixture for a short time. The thin sticks are then evenly separated, then dipped into a tray of incense powder, consisting of fragrance materials and occasionally a plant-based binder. The dry incense powder is then tossed and piled over the stick while they are spread apart. The sticks are then gently rolled and packed to maintain roundness while more incense powder is repeatedly tossed onto the sticks. Three to four layers of powder are coated onto the sticks, forming a 2 mm thick layer of incense material on the stick. The coated incense is then allowed to dry in open air. Additional coatings of incense mixture can be applied after each period of successive drying. Incense sticks that are burned in temples of Chinese folk religion produced in this fashion can have a thickness between 2 to 4 millimeters. Compression: A damp powder is mechanically formed around a cored stick by compression, similar to the way uncored sticks are formed. This form is becoming more commonly found due to the higher labor cost of producing powder-coated or paste-rolled sticks. Burning incense An Oriental Orthodox congregation in India processes outside its church with palm fronds on Palm Sunday with incense.

86 For indirect-burning incense, pieces of the incense are burned by placing them directly on top of a heat source or on a hot metal plate in a censer or thurible. In Japan a similar censer called a egōro ( 柄香炉? ) is used by several Buddhist sects. The egōro is usually made of brass with a long handle ( 柄 e? )) and no chain. Instead of charcoal, makkō powder is poured into a depression made in a bed of ash. The makkō is lit and the incense mixture is burned on top. This method is known as Sonae-kō (Religious Burning). For direct-burning incense, the tip or end of the incense is ignited with a flame or other heat source until the incense begins to turn into ash at the burning end. Flames on the incense are then fanned or blown out, with the incense continuing to burn flamelessly on its own. Cultural variations Chinese incense Incense at a temple in Beijing, China

87 For over two thousand years, the Chinese have used incense (Chinese: 香 ; pinyin: xiāng; meaning "fragrance; aroma; perfume; spice; incense") in religious ceremonies, ancestor veneration, Traditional Chinese medicine, and daily life. As with Japanese incense, agarwood ( 沈香 ; chenxiang) and sandalwood ( 檀香 ; tanxiang) are the two most important ingredients in Chinese incense. Along with the introduction of Buddhism in China came calibrated incense sticks and incense clocks ( 香鐘 ; xiangzhong; "incense clock"; or 香印 ; xiangyin; "incense seal"). The poet Yu Jianwu 庾肩吾 ( ) first recorded them: "By burning incense we know the o'clock of the night, With graduated candles we confirm the tally of the watches." The use of these incense timekeeping devices spread from Buddhist monasteries into Chinese secular society. It is incorrect to assume that the Chinese only burn incense in the home before the family shrine. In Taoist traditions, incense is inextricably associated with the 'yin' energies of the dead, temples, shrines, and ghosts. Therefore, Taoist Chinese believe burning undedicated incense in the home attracts the dreaded hungry ghosts, who consume the smoke and ruin the fortunes of the family. Indian incense However, since Neolithic times, the Chinese have evolved using incense not only for religious ceremonies, but also for personal and environmental aromatherapy. Although misrepresented until recent studies, Chinese incense art is now regarded as one of the esteemed Chinese art forms - next to calligraphy, tea, flower arrangements, antiquities, etc. Indian incense can be divided into two categories: masala and charcoal. Masala incenses are made by blending several solid scented ingredients into a paste and then rolling that paste onto a bamboo core stick. These incenses usually contain little or no liquid scents (which can evaporate or diminish over time). Charcoal incenses are made by dipping an unscented "blank" (non-perfume stick) into a mixture of perfumes and/or essential oils. These blanks usually contain a binding resin that holds the sticks' ingredients together. Most charcoal incenses are black in colour. Jerusalem temple incense Ketoret was the incense offered in the Temple in Jerusalem and is stated in the Book of Exodus as a mixture of stacte, onycha, galbanum and frankincense.

88 Tibetan incense Tibetan incense refers to a common style of incense found in Tibet, Nepal, and Bhutan. These incenses have a characteristic "earthy" scent to them. Ingredients vary from cinnamon, clove, and juniper, to kusum flower, ashvagandha, or sahi jeera. Many Tibetan incenses are thought to have medicinal properties. Their recipes come from ancient Vedic texts that are based on even older Ayurvedic medical texts. The recipes have remained unchanged for centuries. Japanese incense Stacks of incense at a temple in Japan

89 In Japan incense appreciation folklore includes art, culture, history, and ceremony. It can be compared to and has some of the same qualities as music, art, or literature. Incense burning may occasionally take place within the tea ceremony, just like Calligraphy, Ikebana, and Scroll Arrangement. However the art of incense appreciation or Koh-do, is generally practiced as a separate art form from the tea ceremony, however usually practiced within a tea room of traditional Zen design. Agarwood ( 沈香 Jinkō) and sandalwood ( 白檀 Byakudan) are the two most important ingredients in Japanese incense. Agarwood is known as "Jinkō" in Japan, which translates as "incense that sinks in water", due to the weight of the resin in the wood. Sandalwood is one of the most calming incense ingredients and lends itself well to meditation. It is also used in the Japanese tea ceremony. The most valued Sandalwood comes from Mysore in the state of Karnataka in India. Another important ingredient in Japanese incense is kyara ( 伽羅 ). Kyara is one kind of agarwood (Japanese incense companies divide agarwood into 6 categories depending on the region obtained and properties of the agarwood). Kyara is currently worth more than its weight in gold. Some terms used in Japanese incense culture include: Incense Arts: [ 香道, Kodo] Agarwood: [ 沈香 ] from heartwood from Aquilaria trees, unique, the incense wood most used in incense ceremony, other names are: lignum aloes or aloeswood, gaharu, jinko, or oud. Censer/Incense burner: [ 香爐 ] usually small and used for heating incense not burning, or larger and used for burning Charcoal: [ 木炭 ] only the odorless kind is used. Incense woods: [ 香木 ] a naturally fragrant resinous wood. Uses of incense Incense, being an article familiar to humanity since the dawn of civilization, has meant different things to the different peoples who have come to use it. Given the wide diversity of such peoples and their practices, it would be impossible to form an all-inclusive list of the ways in which incense has come to be used, since the methods and purposes of employment are as diverse and nuanced as those who have employed it.

90 Practical use of incense Mosquito repellent are often manufactured in coil form and burned in a similar manner as incense. Incense fragrances can be of such great strength that they obscure other, less desirable odours. This utility led to the use of incense in funerary ceremonies because the incense could smother the scent of decay. Another example of this use, as well as of religious use is the Botafumeiro, which, according to tradition, was installed to hide the scent of the many tired, unwashed pilgrims huddled together in the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela. A similar utilitarian use of incense can be found in the post-reformation Church of England. Although the ceremonial use of incense was abandoned until the Oxford Movement, it was common to have incense (typically frankincense) burned before grand occasions, when the church would be crowded. The frankincense was carried about by a member of the vestry before the service in a vessel called a 'perfuming pan'. In iconography of the day, this vessel is shown to be elongated and flat, with a single, long

91 handle on one side. It is important to note that the perfuming pan was used instead of the thurible, as the latter would have likely offended the Protestant sensibilities of the 17th and 18th centuries. The regular burning of direct combustion incense has been used for chronological measurement in incense clocks. These devices can range from a simple trail of incense material calibrated to burn in a specific time period, to elaborate and ornate instruments with bells or gongs, designed to involve and captivate several of the senses. Incense made from materials such as citronella can repel mosquitoes and other aggravating, distracting or pestilential insects. This use has been deployed in concert with religious uses by Zen Buddhists who claim that the incense that is part of their meditative practice is designed to keep bothersome insects from distracting the practitioner. Currently, more effective pyrethroid-based mosquito repellant incense is widely available in Asia. Aesthetic use of incense Incense is also used often by people who smoke indoors, and do not want the scent to linger. Many people burn incense to appreciate its smell, without assigning any other specific significance to it, in the same way that the forgoing items can be produced or consumed solely for the contemplation or enjoyment of the refined sensory experience. This use is perhaps best exemplified in the kōdō ( 香道? ), where (frequently costly) raw incense materials such as agarwood are appreciated in a formalized setting.

92 Religious use of incense Incense burning at a temple in Taipei Use of incense in religion is prevalent in many cultures and may have their roots in the practical and aesthetic uses considering that many religions with not much else in common all use incense. One common motif is incense as a form of sacrificial offering to a deity, for example, Taoist and Buddhist Chinese jingxiang ( 敬香 "offer incense [to ancestors/gods]).

93 Incense and health Incense smoke contains various contaminants including gaseous pollutants, such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO x ), sulfur oxides (SO x ), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) [4 8], and absorbed toxic pollutants (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and toxic metals). The solid particles range between ~10 and 500 nm. The emission rate decreases in the row Indian sandalwood > Japanese aloeswood > Taiwanese aloeswood > smokeless sandalwood. There is no question that those contaminants are carcinogenic and can cause respiratory diseases, but the risk of those depends on the exposure. Research carried out in Taiwan in 2001 linked the burning of incense sticks to the slow accumulation of potential carcinogens in a poorly ventilated environment by measuring the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (including benzopyrene) within Buddhist temples. The study found gaseous aliphatic aldehydes, which are carcinogenic and mutagenic, in incense smoke. was associated with certain low-cancer-risk dietary habits, and concluded that "diet can A survey of risk factors for lung cancer, also conducted in Taiwan, noted an inverse association between incense burning and adenocarcinoma of the lung, though the finding was not deemed significant. In contrast, a study by several Asian Cancer Research Centers showed: "No association was found between exposure to incense burning and respiratory symptoms like chronic cough, chronic sputum, chronic bronchitis, runny nose, wheezing, asthma, allergic rhinitis, or pneumonia among the three populations studied: i.e. primary school children, their non-smoking mothers, or a group of older non-smoking female controls. Incense burning did not affect lung cancer risk among non-smokers, but it significantly reduced risk among smokers, even after adjusting for lifetime smoking amount." However, the researchers qualified the findings by noting that incense burning in the studied population be a significant confounder of epidemiological studies on air pollution and respiratory health." Frankincense has been shown to cause antidepressive behavior in mice. It activated the poorly understood ion channels in the brain to alleviate anxiety and depression.

94 Chapter 11 List of Perfumes This is a list of some perfumes, sortable by year, name, company, and perfumer. Year Name Company Perfumer 1390 Fiori di Capri Carthusia 1612 Santa Maria Novella Santa Maria Novella 1709 Farina Eau de Johann Maria Cologne Farina Johann Maria Farina ( ) 1714 Kölnisch Wasser Farina gegenüber Johann Maria Farina 1780 Royal English Leather Creed 1789 Number Six Caswell-Massey Dr. William Hunter Echt Kölnisch Wasser 4711 Wilhelm Muhlens 1798 Eau de Lubin Parfum Lubin Pierre François Lubin 1799 Gold Medal Atkinsons 1806 Jean Marie Farina Roger & Gallet 1815 Freshman Truefitt & Hill Francis Truefitt 1821 Lavender Floris 1828 Pot Pourri Santa Maria Novella 1853 Eau de Cologne Impériale Guerlain Pierre-François-Pascal Guerlain 1862 Fantasia de Fleurs Creed 1872 Hammam Bouquet Penhaligon's William Henry Penhaligon 1882 Fougère Royale Houbigant Paul Parquet

95 1889 Jicky Guerlain Aimé Guerlain c Bouquet Nouveau Roger & Gallet 1901 Edwardian Bouquet Floris 1902 Blenheim Bouquet Penhaligon's William Henry Penhaligon 1904 Mouchoir de Monsieur Guerlain Jacques Guerlain 1904 La Rose Jacqueminot Coty François Coty 1905 L'Origan Coty François Coty 1905 Ambre Antique Coty François Coty 1908 Florida Water Murray & Lanman c.1910 Astris L.T. Piver L.T. Piver c.1912 Chypre D'Orsay 1911 English Fern Penhaligon's William Henry Penhaligon c Illusion Drake c.1911 Narcisse Noir Caron Ernest Daltroff 1912 L'Heure Bleue Guerlain Jacques Guerlain 1912 Quelques Fleurs Houbigant Robert Bienaimé 1913 April Violets Yardley c. La Feuilleraie Gueldy 1913 c.1913 Muguet Coty François Coty 1913 Violette Précieuse Caron Ernest Daltroff 1916 Acqua di Parma Colonia Acqua di Parma 1917 Chypre Coty François Coty 1919 Mitsouko Guerlain Jacques Guerlain 1919 Tabac Blond Caron Ernest Daltroff 1921 N 5 Chanel Ernest Beaux 1922 June Roses Morny 1922 N 22 Chanel Ernest Beaux 1922 Nuit de Noël Caron Ernest Daltroff 1924 Cuir de Russie Chanel Ernest Beaux c.1925 Mon Studio Calliste c.1925 My Sin Lanvin André Fraysse 1925 Shalimar Guerlain Jacques Guerlain 1926 Bois des Îles Chanel Ernest Beaux 1926 Paris Coty François Coty 1927 Arpège Lanvin André Fraysse and Paul Vacher

96 1927 Bellodgia Caron Ernest Daltroff 1927 L'Aimant Coty Francois Coty, Vincent Roubert 1928 Soir de Paris Bourjois Ernest Beaux 1929 Liu Guerlain Jacques Guerlain 1930 Acqua di Parma Profumo Acqua di Parma 1930 Joy Jean Patou Henri Alméras 1932 Je Reviens House of Worth Maurice Blanchet 1932 Tabu Dana Jean Carles 1933 Vol de Nuit Guerlain Jacques Guerlain 1933 Angélique Encens Creed 1934 Blue Grass Elizabeth Arden Fragonard 1934 Dunhill for Men Alfred Dunhill 1934 Pour Un Homme Caron Ernest Daltroff 1935 Nuit de Longchamp Parfum Lubin 1936 French Cancan Caron Ernest Daltroff c.1936 Kobako Bourjois 1937 Colony Patou Henri Alméras 1938 Dancing Time Durbarry 1939 It's You Arden Edmond Roudnitska 1940 Snuff Schiaparelli Dana (Originally 1941 Chantilly Houbigant) 1943 Arôme 3 D'Orsay 1944 Bandit Robert Piguet Germaine Cellier 1944 Femme Rochas Edmond Roudnitska 1945 White Shoulders Elizabeth Arden 1946 Coeur-Joie Nina Ricci Germaine Cellier 1946 Ma Griffe Carven Jean Carles 1947 Miss Dior Christian Dior SA 1947 Vent Vert Balmain Germaine Cellier 1948 Fracas Robert Piguet Germaine Cellier 1948 L'Air du Temps Nina Ricci Françis Fabron 1949 Rose Caron Michel Morsetti 1949 English Leather Dana 1950 Orange Spice Creed 1951 Eau d'hermès Hermès Edmond Roudnitska 1951 Prince Douka Marquay

97 1952 Wind Song Prince Matchabelli Georges V. Matchabelli 1952 Quadrille Balenciaga 1953 Youth Dew Estée Lauder Estée Lauder 1954 Électrique Max Factor 1954 Poivre Caron Michel Morsetti 1955 Chanel Pour Monsieur Chanel Henri Robert 1955 Pine Sylvestre Silvestre Lino Vidal 1956 Diorissimo Christian Dior Edmond Roudnitska 1957 Le De Givenchy 1957 L'Interdit (original) Givenchy Francis Fabron 1959 Monsieur de Givenchy Givenchy Michel Hy 1959 Cabochard Parfums Grès Bernard Chant 1959 Tabac Mäurer & Wirtz 1960 Unforgettable Avon 1961 Eau d'hadrien Annick Goutal Annick Goutal 1961 Vetiver Guerlain Jean-Paul Guerlain 1962 Bal à Versailles Jean Desprez Jean Desprez 1963 Diorling Christian Dior Paul Vacher 1964 Idole de Lubin Parfum Lubin 1965 Aramis Aramis Bernard Chant 1965 Melograno Santa Maria Novella 1966 Eau Sauvage Christian Dior Edmond Roudnitska 1967 Climat Lancôme Gerard Goupy 1968 Irisia Creed 1969 Ô Lancôme Robert Gonnon 1969 Chamade Guerlain Jean-Paul Guerlain 1970 Équipage Hermès Guy Robert 1970 Sélection Verte Creed 1971 N 19 Chanel Henri Robert 1972 Diorella Christian Dior Edmond Roudnitska 1972 Fleurissimo Creed 1973 Charlie Revlon Harry A. Cuttler 1973 Ciara Revlon 1974 Baby Soft Love's 1974 Cristalle Chanel Henri Robert 1974 Eau de Guerlain Guerlain Jean-Paul Guerlain 1975 Zeste Mandarine Creed

98 Pamplemousse 1976 Lily of the Valley Penhaligon's 1976 Violetta Penhaligon's 1976 Z-14 Halston Vincent Marsello 1977 Opium Yves Saint Laurent Jean-Louis Sieuzac 1978 Anaïs Anaïs Cacharel Raymond Chaillan/Roger Pellegrino 1978 Azzaro Pour Homme Azzaro Gérard Anthony, Martin Heiddenreich, Richard Wirtz 1978 Bluebell Penhaligon's Michael Pickthall 1978 Cinnabar Estée Lauder Bernard Chant 1978 Magie Noire Lancôme G. Goupy / J-C Niel 1978 White Linen Estée Lauder Sophia Grojsman 1979 Nahéma Guerlain Jean-Paul Guerlain 1980 Ivoire Balmain Francis Camail 1980 Patou Pour Homme Jean Patou Jean Kerleo 1981 Kouros Yves Saint Laurent Pierre Bourdon 1981 Must de Cartier Cartier Jean-Jacques Diener 1981 Nombre Noir Shiseido Jean-Yves Leroy 1981 Giorgio Giorgio Beverly Hills Group Work: M.L. Quince, Francis Camail, Harry Cuttler 1982 Drakkar Noir Guy Laroche Pierre Wargnye 1982 Trussardi Trussardi 1982 Quorum Antonio Puig 1983 Paris Yves Saint Laurent Sophia Grojsman 1984 Coco Chanel Jacques Polge 1985 Obsession Calvin Klein Jean Guichard 1985 Poison Christian Dior Edouard Flechier 1985 Green Irish Tweed Creed Olivier Creed 1986 Prescriptives Calyx Prescriptives Sophia Grojsman 1987 Lou Lou Cacharel Jean Guichard 1988 Cool Water Davidoff Pierre Bourdon 1988 Eternity Calvin Klein Sophia Grojsman 1988 Fahrenheit Christian Dior Jean-Louis Sieuzac, Maurice Roger 1989 Red Door Elizabeth Arden Carlos Benaim, Olivier Gillotin 1989 Samsara Guerlain Jean-Paul Guerlain 1990 Trésor Lancôme Sophia Grojsman 1991 Gendarme Gendarme 1992 Angel Thierry Mugler Olvier Cresp

99 1992 Bois de Violette Serge Lutens Christopher Sheldrake 1992 L'eau d'issey Issey Miyake Jacques Cavallier 1992 Féminité du Bois Shiseido Christopher Sheldrake 1993 Jean-Paul Gaultier Classique Jean-Paul Gaultier Jacques Cavallier 1994 CK One Calvin Klein Harry Fremont and Alberto Morillas 1994 sexual Michel Germain Sophia Grojsman 1994 Edén Cacharel , Faubourg Hermès Maurice Roucel 1995 Hugo Hugo Boss Francis Kurkdjian/Creations Aromatiques 1995 Le Mâle Jean-Paul Gaultier Francis Kurkdjian 1995 Millésime Impérial Creed Olivier Creed 1996 Acqua di Gió Pour Homme Giorgio Armani Alberto Morillas and Jacques Cavallier 1996 Angel Men/A*Men Thierry Mugler Jacques Huclier 1996 Dolce Vita Christian Dior Pierre Bourdon and Maurice Roger 1996 Spring Flower Creed Olivier Creed 1996 Tommy Girl Tommy Hilfiger Calice Becker 1996 Organza Givenchy Sophie Labbé 1996 sexual pour homme Michel Germain Carlos Benaim 1997 Envy Gucci Maurice Roucel 1997 Lolita Lempicka Lolita Lempicka Annick Menardo 1998 Hypnotic Poison Christian Dior Annick Menardo 1998 Bulgari Black Bulgari Annick Menardo 1998 Noa Cacharel Olivier Cresp 1999 Dzing! L'Artisan Olivia Giacobetti 1999 J'Adore Christian Dior Calice Becker 2000 En Passant Frederic Malle Olivia Giacobetti 2000 Tea for Two L'Artisan Olivia Giacobetti 2000 Red Ferrari Clive Christian 2001 Chergui Serge Lutens Christopher Sheldrake 2001 Coco Mademoiselle Chanel Jacques Polge 2001 Light Blue Dolce & Gabbana Olivier Cresp 2001 Mugler Cologne Thierry Mugler Alberto Morillas 2001 No. 1 Clive Christian 2001 Nu Yves Saint Laurent Jacques Cavallier 2001 X Clive Christian

100 2002 Addict Christian Dior Thierry Wasser 2002 Black Cashmere Donna Karan Rodrigo Flores-Roux Comme des Garçons 2002 Chance Chanel Jacques Polge 2002 M7 Yves Saint Laurent Alberto Morillas, Jacques Cavallier % Love Shaping Room Sophia Grojsman 2003 Amor Amor Cacharel Laurent Bruyere, Dominque Ropion 2003 Beyond Paradise Estée Lauder Calice Becker 2003 Life Armanis 2003 Brit Burberry Nathalie Gracia-Cetto 2003 Narciso Rodriguez Narciso Rodriguez Francis Kurkdjian & Christine Nagel For Her 2004 Eau des Merveilles Hermès Ralf Schwieger / Nathalie Feisthauer 2004 Flowerbomb Viktor & Rolf Olivier Polge / Carlos Benaim / Domitille Bertier 2004 Pure Poison Christian Dior 2005 Alien Thierry Mugler Dominique Ropion / Laurent Bruyere 2005 Chinatown Bond No. 9 Aurelien Guichard 2005 Euphoria Calvin Klein 2005 Un Jardin sur le Nil Hermès Jean-Claude Ellena 2006 Black Orchid Tom Ford 2006 Terre d'hermès Hermès Jean-Claude Ellena 2006 Rose 31 Le Labo Daphne Bugey 2006 Lily & Spice Penhaligon's 2006 Insolence Guerlain Maurice Roucel 2006 L'Homme Yves Saint Laurent 2006 Princess Vera Wang 2007 Light Blue Pour Homme Dolce & Gabbana Stefano Gabbana 2007 Fleur du Mâle Jean-Paul Gaultier Francis Kurkdjian 2007 Prada Infusion d'iris Prada Daniela Andrier 2007 Gucci by Gucci Gucci 2007 Black Roberto Cavalli 2007 Midnight Poison Dior Comme des Garçons 2008 Gucci by Gucci - Pour Gucci Homme

101 2008 Diamonds Emporio Armani 2008 Adventure Davidoff 2008 One Million Paco Rabanne 2008 The One Dolce and Gabbana 2008 Elixir Penhaligon's Olivia Giacobetti 2008 London Dunhill 2008 Fuel For Life Diesel 2009 Only The Brave Diesel 2009 Uomo Ferrari 2009 Acqua Fiorentina Creed 2009 La Nuit De L'Homme Yves Saint Laurent 2010 Love, Chloé Chloé Louise Turner and Nathalie Gracia- Cetto

102 Chapter 12 Aromatherapy A diffuser and a bottle of essential oil. Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine that uses volatile plant materials, known as essential oils, and other aromatic compounds for the purpose of altering a person's mind, mood, cognitive function or health.