1.2 Nano- or microencapsulation as a rich source of delivery of functional components 3

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1 1 Overview of Nano- and Microencapsulation for Foods 1 Hae-Soo Kwak 1.1 Introduction Nano- or microencapsulation as a rich source of delivery of functional components Wall materials used for encapsulation Techniques used for the production of nano- or microencapsulation of foods Characterization of nano- or microencapsulated functional particles Fortification of foods through nano- or microcapsules Nano- or microencapsulation technologies: industrial perspectives and applications in the food market Overview of the book 8 Acknowledgments 12 References 12 Part I Concepts and rationales of nano- and microencapsulation for foods 15 2 Theories and Concepts of Nano Materials, Nano- and microencapsulation 17 Jingyuan Wen, Guanyu Chen, and Raid G. Alany 2.1 Introduction Materials used for nanoparticles, nano- and microencapsulation Polymers Nano- and microencapsulation techniques Chemical methods Physico-chemical methods Other methods Factors influencing optimization Pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications Various delivery routes for nano- and microencapsulation systems Food ingredients and nutraceutical applications 35

2 2.5.1 Background and definitions Nanomaterials, nano- and microencapsulation in nutraceuticals Conclusion 37 References 38 3 Rationales of Nano- and Microencapsulation for Food Ingredients 43 Sundaram Gunasekaran and Sanghoon Ko 3.1 Introduction Factors affecting the quality loss of food ingredients Oxygen Light Temperature Adverse interaction Taste masking Case studies of food ingredient protection through nano- and microencapsulation Vitamins Enzymes Minerals Phytochemicals Lipids Probiotics Flavors Conclusion 57 References 58 4 Methodologies Used for the Characterization of Nano- and Microcapsules 65 Minh-Hiep Nguyen, Nurul Fadhilah Kamalul Aripin, Xi G. Chen, and Hyun-Jin Park 4.1 Introduction Methodologies used for the characterization of nano- and microcapsules 67

3 4.2.1 Particle size and particle size distribution Zeta potential measurement Morphology Membrane flexibility Stability Encapsulation efficiency Conclusion 88 Acknowledgements 88 References 88 5 Advanced Approaches of Nano- and Microencapsulation for Food Ingredients 95 Mi-Jung Choi and Hae-Soo Kwak 5.1 Introduction Nanoencapsulation based on the microencapsulation technology Classification of the encapsulation system Nanoparticle or microparticle Structural encapsulation systems Preparation methods for the encapsulation system Emulsification Precipitation Desolvation Ionic gelation Application of the encapsulation system in food ingredients Conclusion 110 References 111 Part II Nano- and microencapsulations of food ingredients Nano- and Microencapsulation of Phytochemicals 119 Sung Je Lee and Marie Wong

4 6.1 Introduction Classification of phytochemicals Flavonoids Carotenoids Betalains Phytosterols Organosulfurs and glucosinolates Stability and solubility of phytochemicals Microencapsulation of phytochemicals Spray-drying Freeze-drying Liposomes Coacervation Molecular inclusion complexes Nanoencapsulation Nanoemulsions Nanoparticles Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) Nanoparticles through supercritical anti-solvent precipitation Conclusion 153 References Microencapsulation for Gastrointestinal Delivery of Probiotic Bacteria 167 Kasipathy Kailasapathy 7.1 Introduction The gastrointestinal (GI) tract Microbiota of the adult GI tract 169

5 7.2.2 Characteristics of the GI tract for probiotic delivery Encapsulation technologies for probiotics Techniques for probiotic encapsulation Microencapsulation (ME) in gel particles using polymers The extrusion technique The emulsion technique Spray-drying, spray-coating and spray-chilling technologies Microencapsulation technologies for nutraceuticals incorporating probiotics Controlled release of probiotic bacteria Potential applications of encapsulated probiotics Yoghurt Cheese Frozen desserts Unfermented milks Powdered formulations Meat products Plant-based (vegetarian) probiotic products Future trends and marketing perspectives 189 References Nano-Structured Minerals and Trace Elements for Food and Nutrition Applications 199 Florentine M. Hilty and Michael B. Zimmermann 8.1 Introduction Special characteristics of nanoparticles Nano-structured entities in natural foods Nano-structured minerals in nutritional applications Iron 202

6 8.4.2 Zinc Calcium Magnesium Selenium Copper Uptake of nano-structured minerals Conclusion 213 References Nano- and Microencapsulation of Vitamins 223 Ashok R. Patel and Bhesh Bhandari 9.1 Introduction Vitamins for food and nutraceutical applications Vitamins: nutritional requirement and biological functions Vitamins: formulation challenges and stability issues Colloidal encapsulation (nano and micro) in foods: principles of use Solid-in-liquid dispersions Liquid-in-liquid dispersions Dispersions of self-assembled colloids Encapsulation in dry matrices Molecular encapsulation of vitamins in cyclodextrins Conclusion and future trends 240 References Nano- and Microencapsulation of Flavor in Food Systems 249 Kyuya Nakagawa 10.1 Introduction Flavor stabilization in food nano- and microstructures Application of encapsulated flavors 250

7 Interactions between flavor compounds and carrier matrices Flavor retention in colloidal systems Flavor retention in food gel Flavor inclusion in starch nanostructure Flavor retention and release in an encapsulated system Mass transfer at the liquid gas interface Mass transfer at a solid gas interface Nano- and microstructure processing Spray-drying Freeze-drying Complex coacervation Conclusion 266 Acknowledgements 267 References Application of Nanomaterials, Nano- and Microencapsulation to Milk and Dairy Products 273 Hae-Soo Kwak, Mohammad Al Mijan, and Palanivel Ganesan 11.1 Introduction Milk Microencapsulation of functional ingredients Microencapsulation of vitamins Microencapsulation of iron Microencapsulation of lactase Nanofunctional ingredients Nanocalcium Yogurt Microencapsulation of functional ingredients 287

8 Microencapsulation of iron Nanofunctional ingredients Cheese Microencapsulation for accelerated cheese ripening Microencapsulation of iron Nanopowdered functional ingredients Others Microencapsulation of iron Conclusion 293 References Application of Nano- and Microencapsulated Materials to Food Packaging 301 Loong-Tak Lim 12.1 Introduction Nanocomposite technologies Layered silicate nanocomposites Mineral oxide and organic nanocrystal composites Material properties enhancement of biodegradable/compostable polymers Intelligent and active packaging based on nano- and microencapsulation technologies Product quality and shelf-life indicators Nano- and microencapsulated antimicrobial composites TiO2 ethylene scavenger for shelf-life extension of fruits and vegetables Conclusion 318 References 319 Part III Bioactivity, toxicity, and regulation of nanomaterial, nano- and microencapsulated ingredients Controlled Release of Food Ingredients 327 Sanghoon Ko and Sundaram Gunasekaran

9 13.1 Introduction Fracturation Diffusion Dissolution Biodegradation External and internal triggering Thermosensitive Acoustic sensitive Light-sensitive ph-sensitive Chemical-sensitive Enzyme-sensitive Other stimuli Conclusion 340 References Bioavailability and Bioactivity of Nanomaterial, Nano- and Microencapsulated Ingredients in Foods 345 Soo-Jin Choi 14.1 Introduction Bioavailability of nano- and microencapsulated phytochemicals Bioavailability of other nano- and microencapsulated nutraceuticals Bioavailability of nano- and microencapsulated bioactive components Conclusion 357 References Potential Toxicity of Food Ingredients Loaded in Nano- and Microparticles 363 Guanyu Chen, Soon-Mi Shim, and Jingyuan Wen 15.1 Introduction 363

10 15.2 Factors influence the toxicity of nano- and microparticles Size of the nano- and microparticles Shape of the nano- and microparticles Solubility of the nano- and microparticles Chemical composition of the nano- and microparticles Behavior and health risk of nano- and microparticles in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract Absorption Distribution Excretion/elimination Toxicity studies of nano- and microparticles Oral exposure studies for toxicity In vitro studies for toxicity Lack of an analytical method model to evaluate the safety of micro- and nanoparticles Risk assessment of micro- and nanomaterials in food applications Risk assessment Conclusion 377 References Current Regulation of Nanomaterials Used as Food Ingredients 383 Hyun-Kyung Kim, Jong-Gu Lee, and Si-Young Lee 16.1 Introduction The European Union (EU) Definition The EFSA Guidance Regulation The United Kingdom (UK) France 389

11 16.5 The United States of America (USA) Canada Korea Australia and New Zealand 393 References 393 Index 395

COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL. Contents. xiv xv xvi. About the authors Preface Acknowledgments

COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL. Contents. xiv xv xvi. About the authors Preface Acknowledgments About the authors Preface Acknowledgments 1 Introduction to spray drying 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Stage 1: Atomization 2 1.2.1 Principle of atomization 3 1.2.2 Classification of atomizers 4 1.2.2.1 Rotary