Outline defining principles and give research examples.

Transcription

1 Outline defining principles and give research examples. Our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by cognitive factors. Principle Research Examples Sample Conclusion Mental representations guide behavior. Loftus & Palmer (1974) Blackwell et al. (2007) Tversky & Kahneman (1981) People s memories are influenced by their schemas, which may be different than others. Mental processes can be scientifically investigated. Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors. Tversky & Kahneman (1981) Roediger & McDermott (1995) Windschitl & Chambers (2004) probabilistic reasoning Kitayama et al. (2003) Steele & Aronson (1995) Prentice & Miller (1993) social cognitive theory Decision-making processes can be studied by, for example, varying the way in which the given information is framed. People s decisions and cognitive abilities can vary significantly based on what they believe other people think about them.

2 Discuss how and why particular reseach methods are used. Research Method How it is used Why it is used Examples Experimental Participants are randomly assigned to condition or order of conditions, which is often easy to do for cognitive studies. Confounds (other than those resulting from the procedure itself) are eliminated, allowing for determination of causation. Quasi-Experimental / Correlational Combination Participants are not randomly assigned. In a correlational study, both the IV and DV are measured. In some studies, one or more independent variables are experimentally manipulated and the rest are not. Random assignment is not always feasible or ethical, or may require artifical settings that limit ecological validity. Smith (1979) Loftus & Palmer (1974) Craik & Tulving (1975) Mueller & Dweck (1998) Mischel, Shoda, & Peake (1988) Daley et al. (2003) See above. Steele & Aronson (1995) Kitiyama et al. (2003)

3 Discuss ethical concerns related to cognitive research. APA ethical guidelines (informed consent, right to withdraw, etc.) should be followed for all psychological studies. In addition, the concerns below are specific to cognitive research. Concern Trade-off Examples Self-Esteem Tests of cognitive abilities are often scored on a scale from bad to good. Since people tend to overestimate their own abilities, realistic scores may be discouraging. Entity Theories In addition to studies that may be intentionally instilling an entity theory in one condition, all studies measuring a cognitive process may cause participants to make a false connection between measurable and unchangeable. Tversky & Kahneman (1983) Craik & Tulving (1975) Fischbein & Schnarch (1997) Mueller & Dweck (1998) Wainwright et al. (2004)

4 Evaluate schema theory. Schema theory states that people often remember general schemas (about people, events, etc.), and, when pressed for unremembered details, guess them based on the schemas. Schema theory has been shown in many contexts, such as an event (Loftus & Palmer, 1974), a location (Brewer & Treyens, 1981), and a story (Carli, 1999). There are critiques of schema theory, but as a whole the theory is well-founded and applicable. Critique Many studies demonstrating schema theory lack ecological validity. Rebuttal This is a valid point for many (e.g., Loftus & Palmer) but not all (e.g., Brewer & Treyens) studies. However, although people may rely less on schemas in real-world contexts, this does not imply that they do not rely on them at all. People often remember details whether or not they fit the overall schema. Schema theory does not specify that details are not remembered. Instead, it states that when details are forgotten, which is common, people tend to fill them in based on schemas.

5 Evaluate two theories or models of one cognitive process. Two theories of language development are outlined below. In reality, the best explanation of language development is most likely a combination of the two (that is, an interactionist theory). Theory Summary Evaluation Behaviorist Behaviorists, such as Skinner, believed that language development results from on operant conditioning Nativist Nativists, such as Chomsky, believed that language development results from an innate language acquistion device, unique to humans Operant conditioning is a well-established and powerful phenomenon in countless contexts. However, the difference in language ability between humans and animals is greater than operant conditioning can easily explain. Some argue that children s common overregularization cannot be a result of conditioning, but this argument is weak because it assumes children are conditioned to learn only the words, not the rules, of a language. Language acquistion device is an abstract concept that cannot easily be tested. However, it is not unreasonable to assume that humans are naturally predisposed to learn language due to their more significant prefrontal cortex and overall intellectual capabilities.

6 Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process. Cognitive processes are carried out in the brain, and the brain is a biological entity. Therefore, cognitive processes, such as memory (explored below) have a biological basis. Factor Structural Cellular Explanation Specific brain structures have been found to involve memory, and differences in these yield different memory abilities. This is most pronounced after brain damage, such as HM or Clive Wearing, and also with respect to brain development as children age. Structural factors may be influenced by genetics, itself a biological factor. Brain chemistry can influence memory. This is true both for internally produced chemicals, such as acetylcholine which has been linked with memory, and for externally introduced chemicals, especially toxins such as alcohol. Like structural factors, cellular factors can be influenced by genetics.

7 Explain how social or cultural factors may affect a cognitive process. Cognitive processes are often take place in a social or cultural context. Therefore, cognitive processes, such as mathematical reasoning (explored below) can be influenced by social and cultural factors. Influence Social Cultural Social or Cultural Factors Stereotype threat can interfere with cognitive processes. (Steele & Aronson, 1995) An expectancy effect can affect self-efficacy, which in turn affects how one approaches a problem. (Ciani et al., 2009) Family and learning environments can foster performance or mastery learning orientations, leading to more superficial or conceptual exploration of problems. (Mueller & Dweck, 1998) Westerners tend to have an analytic cognitive style, whereas Easterners tend to have a holistic cognitive style. (Kitayama et al., 2003) Different cultures have different cultural schemas and narratives, making some contexts easier or harder to relate to.

8 How reliable are cognitive processes? The reliability of any cognitive process varies from context to context, and are particularly vulnerable in certain situations. People tend to overestimate the reliability of their own cognitive processes. Process Vulnerability Memory decay (Peterson & Peterson, 1959) interference, including serial position effect (Glanzer & Cuniz, 1966) schemas (Loftus & Palmer, 1974) illusory truth effect (Begg et al., 1992) DRM paradigm (Roediger & McDermott, 1995) Probabilistic Reasoning overreliance on system 1 framing (Tversky & Kahnemann, 1981) alternative-outcomes effect (Windschitl & Wells, 1998) dud-alternative effect (Windschitl & Chambers, 2004) cognitive load (Callan, Sutton, & Dovale, 2010)

9 Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes. Advances in brain imaging have allowed researchers to explore biological underpinnings of cognitive processes. Aspect examined Explanation Examples Structure Technology such as CT scans can view the structure of a live brain, allowing researchers to match abnormalities to current behavior rather than waiting for postmortem examination. Function Technology such as fmri can view the function of a live brain, allowing researchers to match stimuli and behavior to brain activity. Damage within H.M. s brain could be examined while he was still alive. Cunningham et al. (2004) Kim et al. (1997)

10 Discuss interactions between cognition and biology in emotion. Emotion is based on an interaction of physiological components and cognitive appraisal. Schacter & Singer (1962) demonstrated this by (a) giving participants adrenaline or a placebo, (b) if adrenaline, informing them of its arousal effects or not, and (c) putting them in a happy or a stressful situation. Aware of adrenaline yes Result Participants were little affected by the situation because they attributed their state of arousal to the adrenaline rather than to the situation. no Participants were affected by the situation: Depending on the surrounding context, they felt either increased euphoria or increased anger. This was because they attributed their state of arousal to the situation.

11 Evaluate a theory of how emotion may affect a cognitive process. Flashbulb memories, in theory, are much stronger than ordinary memories. In reality, this is partially true. Aspect Vividness Findings Flashbulb memories are very vivid compared to ordinary memories. This is likely in part because they have been revisited many times. Confidence People tend to feel more confident about flashbulb memories than about ordinary memories. Accuracy Despite the high levels of confidence, flashbulb memories are not more accurate than ordinary memories.