Outline defining principles and give research examples.

Transcription

1 Outline defining principles and give research examples. Much of both human and animal behavior is based at least partially on biological factors, especially genetics and physiology. Principle Examples Research limitations Patterns of cognitions, emotions, and behavior can be inherited. Loehlin (1992) Wainwright et al. (2004) Studies tend to be correlational rather than experimental, making causation difficult to Cognitions, emotions, and behaviors are products of the anatomy and physiology of our nervous system. Animal research may inform our understanding of human behavior. Gazzaniga et al. (1963), etc. Cunningham et al. (2004) Kim et al. (1997) Pavlov (1906) etc. Garcia & Koelling (1966) Seligman & Maier (1967) establish. The same issue as above exists, although to a lesser extent. External validity from animals to humans is not always well established.

2 Discuss how and why particular research methods are used. Biological research can be difficult because practical or ethical limitations often prevent experimental methods, making causation difficult to establish. Research Method How it is used Why it is used Example Experimental Participants are randomly assigned to condition or order of conditions. In biological Confounds (other than those resulting from the procedure itself) are eliminated, allowing studies, participants are for determination of often animals. causation. Quasi-Experimental / Correlational Case Study Participants are not randomly assigned. In a correlational study, both the IV and DV are measured. Individuals with unique circumstances are studied in depth. Random assignment is not always feasible (especially with genetics) or ethical (especially with brain functioning). Major brain differences can be studied in humans. Cunningham et al. (2004) Kim et al. (1997) Gazzaniga et al. (1963), etc.

3 Discuss ethical concerns related to biological research. APA ethical guidelines should be followed for all psychological studies. In addition, the concerns below are specific to biological research. Concern Trade-off Examples Placebo group might have otherwise benefited from another treatment. Primary and secondary effects are not necessarily known or understood. Awareness of one s genetic or biological vulnerabilities may result in psychological damage or self-fulfilling prophecies. Without a control group, significant findings might be unfounded, leading to widespread use of inefficient or harmful therapies. Many drugs are effective for their intended purpose, but the physiological mechanisms by which they work, as well as their long-term effects, are unknown. See ethical considerations in genetic-behavioral research. commercial drug studies, especially those involving possibly terminal illness commercial drug studies, especially those affecting neurotransmission genetic research, especially with respect to disease

4 Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain. fmri scans and other techniques have shown how certain processes involve specific brain regions. Example Design & Procedure Results Gazzaniga, Bogen, & Sperry (1963) Kim et al. (1997) Split-brain patients were presented stimuli on one side of the body only, and were asked to report the stimuli physically or verbally. Native and nonnative bilinguals thought in each language in a fmri. They were successful verbally only for stimuli on their right side. They were successful physically only for stimuli on the same side as the hand they were using to respond. In Broca s area, the centers of activation were very close for the two different languages. However, this was true in Wernike s area only for the native speakers.

5 Explain effects of neurotransmission on human behavior. Neurons communicate with one another by releasing neurotransmitters. Each neurotransmitter can serve many functions, such as but not limited to those below. Neurotransmitter Effect Example Serotonin Serotonin can regulate mood. There is a positive correlation with happiness and a negative correlation with aggression. SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) treat depressed patients by allowing serotonin to exert longer effects. Acetylcholine Dopamine Acetylcholine is the main factor in voluntary movement. It also helps regulate attention, mood, and arousal. Dopamine is involved in voluntary movement and in pleasurable emotions. Paralyzing poisons block acetylcholine receptors. Cocaine and many other drugs work through excessive dopamine activity; Parkinson s disease results from the opposite.

6 Explain effects of hormones on human behavior. The endocrine system communicates by releasing hormones into the bloodstream. Each hormone can serve many functions, such as but not limited to those below. Hormone Adrenaline Effect energizes sympathetic nervous system: fight or flight Insulin helps glucose enter cells Leptin signals that there are sufficient fat stores, indicating that energy does not need to be conserved

7 Explain effects of the environment on physiological processes. Many physiological processes are directly or indirectly affected by environmental influence. However, it is difficult to establish causation when correlation is found. Environmental Factor Examples Effect stressful family environment Ellis et al. (1999) This was correlated with earlier puberty in girls, especially given an absent or unsupportive father. brain damage Gazzaniga et al. (1963), etc. HM Phineus Gage Specific deficits resulted, depending on the location of the damage, but other functioning was unaffected. enriched environment Rozenzweig & Bennett (1972) Rats placed in a different playground cage for two hours per day for 30 days showed increased brain mass.

8 Examine an interaction between cognition and physiology. Behavior is determined jointly by cognition and physiology, among other factors. Concept Interaction Example Emotion According to the two-factor theory of emotion, emotion is a result of cognitive appraisal of physiological arousal. Schacter & Singer (1962) Memory Brain damage can influence memory. Depending on the location and extent of the damage, memory deficits can be either general or specific. Graf & Schacter (1985)

9 Discuss the study of behavior using brain-imaging technologies. The connections between physiology and behavior can be studied using brain-imaging technologies. Technology Process, Disadvantages Examples Computed Axial Tomography A series of x-rays is taken and (CAT) then stacked to make a 3D image. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fmri) A radioactive substance is absorbed into the bloodstream and then tracked to show brain activity. Electromagnets are used to compare levels of oxygenated blood, which is nonmagnetic, with levels of nonoxygnated blood. Cunningham et al. (2004) Kim et al. (1997) Lara s depression research at Stanford

10 To what extent does genetic inheritance influence behavior? Genetics can influence behavior to a significant extent, but cannot explain all variation in behavior. Technique Indication of influence Example Twin studies Identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins or nontwins. Minnesota twin study (e.g., Tellegan et al. (1988)) Adoption studies Family studies Adopted children are more similar to their biological parents than to their adoptive parents. Relatives with more genetic similarity (e.g., siblings) are more similar than those with less (e.g., cousins)

11 Examine an evolutionary explanation of behavior. Many behaviors can be predicted by considering evolutionary motivations: survival, reproduction, high-quality offspring, and survival of offspring. The following mating tendencies are seen throughout the animal kingdom, including in humans. Behavior Male Explanation Female Explanation Males seek younger mates, and females seek older mates. Younger females can bear more offspring and have healthier eggs. Older males are more mature and have more resources available to aid in raising Males seek many mates, and females seek quality mates. Both sexes seek attractive and wealthy mates, but males prioritize attractiveness and females prioritize wealth. Males maximize reproductive potential by mating often, as they can father many offspring at a time with minimal effort. Attractive females have better genes to pass on and better health to raise offspring. offspring. Females maximize reproductive potential by choosing mates with the best genes, as their time and effort commitment for each offspring is immense. Wealthy males have more resources available to aid in raising offspring.

12 Discuss ethical considerations in genetic-behavioral research. Modern advances in genetic research have shown promise for understanding our own genetics and of those not yet born, but these come with ethical concerns. Consideration Self-fulfilling prophecy Concern Knowledge of one s genetic predispositions may lead to entity theories. Ignorance is bliss Quality of life is negatively affected by knowledge of increased possibility of tragedy. Societal ethics Genetic awareness could lead to discrimination, as well as eugenic viewpoints on reproduction and on abortion.