DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Transcription

1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Developmental Psychology is a subfield concerned with changes over the life span, in physiology, cognition, emotion, and social behavior 1. Stage Theories of Developmental Psychology 2 are models of developmental psychology that assume (1) individuals must progress through specified stages in a particular order because each stage builds on the previous stage, (2) progress through these stages is strongly related to age, and (3) there are major discontinuities between stages in typical behavior. 3 o These theories are typically older ways of studying developmental psychology Quest: Where does this type of understanding of psychology fit under the nature-nurture categories? Dynamic Systems Theory of Developmental Psychology views development as a selforganizing process, where new forms of behavior emerge through consistent interactions between a biological being and his or her cultural and environmental contexts. From this perspective developmental advances in any domain occur through the person s active exploration of an environment and the constant feedback that environment provides 4. o This is a newer way of looking at developmental psychology that takes into account both nature and nurture and does not see development so much as a defined course, but as a typical course. 1 Gazzaniga et al. Psychological Science (4 th ed). p The picture is from materials associated w/weiten s Psychology textbook 3 Weiten, Psychology (9 th ed), p Gazzaniga et al. Psychological Science (4 th ed). p. 370 Page 1 of 6

2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Jean Piaget is a French psychologist who developed a stage theory about the way children think. The primary idea in his theory was that children s view of how the world works are based on different sets of assumptions than those held by adults 5, and as they grow older, how they think about the world changes/adapts. This change in thinking is done by building on the previous stage of thinking and involves two processes: assimilation ( the process in which we place new information into [our existing thinking] ) and accommodation ( the process by which we create new [ways of thinking] or drastically alter [our current thinking] to include new information that otherwise would not fit into [our old way of thinking] 6 ). Piaget s Four Stage Model Stage Age Description & Key Characteristics Sensorimotor 0-2 This stage is characterized by children s ability to think only about objects that activate the senses if they can touch, taste, smell, hear, or see it, then they are actively thinking about it. During this stage, children develop object permanence, which is where they realize that objects continue to exist, even if they cannot sense it Children are able to think more symbolically at this stage (e.g., pretend play), but there logical abilities are limited. Preoperational* 2-7 Concrete 7-12 Piaget found that children, at this stage, cannot grasp the law of conservation, which asserts that objects shape or appearance may change, but the fundamental qualities (e.g., the amount) do not. This is the famous water study (see Gazzaniga s Psychological Science, p. 387, Figure 9.16) They are not able to perform this task because they have not mastered centration, which is the ability to think about two aspects of a problem at the same time. Children at this stage also are characterized by egocentrism, which is the inability to see another person s perspective. (I like to watch Mickey Mouse Clubhouse, so my Mom and Dad must like to watch the show too). This stage is characterized by the development of more logical thought. The logic, however, is limited to concrete objects things that can be sensed. A child will be able to master the conservation task at this point because they would have the logical capacity to figure this out (in these concrete tasks). A child would not be able to apply logic to abstract objects like truth, freedom, etc. 5 Gazzaniga et al. Psychological Science (4 th ed). p Gazzaniga et al. Psychological Science (4 th ed). p. 385 Page 2 of 6

3 Formal 12- Children also master reversibility, which is the ability to mentally undue an operation (e.g., if I go this way to get to a point, I can go backwards to get back to where I started). This stage is developed by the highest levels of thinking, in which deductive reasoning and logical reasoning on abstract concepts takes place. *Theory of Mind is the term used to describe the ability to explain and predict another person s behavior as a result of recognizing her or his mental state 7. T. o. M. includes the ability to understand that other people have thoughts different than you. This, then, is something that one can see emerge in some ways during the preoperational stage. Quest: What are some criticisms of Piaget s cognitive development theory? MORAL DEVELOPMENT Lawrence Kohlberg developed a theory of moral reasoning. Kohlberg s was not interested in what people s moral judgments were or whether people were moral, but how they got to their conclusion. He was influenced by the work of Jean Piaget. There are some parallels between their theories. As Piaget proposed and studied how thought develops over time from simple thinking about what sensory activity to complex, abstract thinking Kohlberg s theory focused on how people s judgments about morality developed across time in stages from simple, concrete thinking to more abstract thinking. Kohlberg studied boys across several years by presenting to them moral dilemmas scenarios where two morals are pitted against each other. o One of Kohlberg s most famous moral dilemmas involved a story about a man who stole money to save his sick wife. In Europe a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctor s thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman s husband, Heinz went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, No, I discovered the drug, and I m going to make money from it. So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man s store to steal the drug for his wife. 7 Gazzaniga et al. Psychological Science (4 th ed). p. 390 Page 3 of 6

4 Kohlberg s Moral Development Stage Model *Kohlberg proposed that there were three levels of moral development, with each containing two stages. Each stage is described just to provide greater context and understanding of the three major levels. Level 1: Preconvention Level Right and wrong are determined by self-interest and event outcomes 8 The focus here is what the outcome of the situation is that serves the interest of the child. In essence, if the situation involves pleasure or reward, it was right. If it involves pain or punishment, it was wrong. Stage 1 The child decides what is wrong on the basis of what is punished. wer. Level 2: Convention Level Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Level 3: Postconventional Level Stage 5 Stage 6 The child follows rules when it is her immediate interest. What is good is what brings pleasant results. Right and wrong are determined by strict adherence to societal rules and the approval of others. 9 The focus here is on the societal structures family and law, for example that determine right and wrong. Moral actions are those that live up to the expectation of the family or other significant group. Being good becomes important for its own sake. Moral actions are those so defined by larger social groups or the society as a whole. One should fulfill duties one has agreed to and uphold laws except in extreme cases. Right and wrong are determined by abstract principles and the value of all life 10 The focus here is on broad principles that serve as guides to determine what is right and wrong. Acting to achieve the greatest good for the greatest number. rules should be upheld to preserve social order. The adult develops and follows self-chosen ethical principles in determining what is right. These ethical principles are part of an articulated integrated, carefully thought-out and consistently followed system of values and principles. Quest: Look at the moral dilemma provided earlier in these notes. Can you provide a moral rationale that would be consistent with each of these levels? Quest: Kohlberg s theory emphasizes cognition. What other psychological processes might play a role in moral judgments? SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Socioemotional development includes the maturation of skills and abilities that enable people to live successfully in the world with other people Gazzaniga et al. Psychological Science (4 th ed). p Gazzaniga et al. Psychological Science (4 th ed). p Gazzaniga et al. Psychological Science (4 th ed). p. 391 Page 4 of 6

5 Psychology has traditionally thought that attachment, which is a strong emotional connection that persists over time and across circumstances 12, strongly influences socioemotional development. Below are key people that contributed to our understanding of this concept: John Bowlby proposed that people are naturally (innately) predisposed to form attachments, such that even the behaviors and sounds that babies make evoke nurture and care, and parents are predisposed to caring for the children. Quest: Does oxytocin support John Bowlby s idea of innate attachment? Harry Harlow conducted several experiments with monkeys to test whether attachment was a result of reinforcement (i.e., the mother feeds the child) or whether attachment was something innate and special. Harlow found that his monkeys preferred contact comfort, regardless of whether the monkey were equipped to provide food Gazzaniga et al. Psychological Science (4 th ed). p Gazzaniga et al. Psychological Science (4 th ed). p Picture is taken from supplemental materials associated with Gazzaniga et al. Psychological Science (4 th ed). Page 5 of 6

6 Mary Ainsworth conducted experiments that demonstrate that the quality of attachment differs. Ainsworth conducted studies and cataloged three types of attachment styles 14. Style Type Population % Actions w/caregiver Actions w/o Caregiver Secure Style Secure 60%-65% Child plays well and is comfortable with strangers. Child becomes distressed. Insecure / Anxious Style Avoidant 35%-40% Anxious / Ambivalent Child plays well and is comfortable with strangers. Child is distressed. Child plays well and is comfortable with strangers. Child is distressed. 14 Picture is taken from supplemental materials associated with Gazzaniga et al. Psychological Science (4 th ed). Page 6 of 6