Observational Research

Transcription

1 Observational Research Sampling Behavior Two methods time sampling and situation sampling. Sampling Behavior Time Sampling: Researchers choose time intervals for making observations. Systematic Random Time sampling is not used when researchers want to observe rare events (e.g., behavior following a hurricane). Event sampling is used, for example, the researcher travels to the site of a recent hurricane. 1

2 Sampling Behavior, continued Situation Sampling: Researchers choose different settings, circumstances, and conditions for their observations. Situation sampling enhances the external validity of findings (secure base behavior in lab, home, playground). Types of Observation Observation without Intervention Observation with Intervention Observational methods can also be classified according to the methods for recording behavior. Comprehensive record of behavior Selected behaviors Observation without Intervention Naturalistic Observation: Observation in natural ( real-world ) settings without an attempt to intervene or change the situation. 2

3 Preserving Freud s Insights: John Bowlby 1. Infants have complex emotional, social and cognitive lives 2. Prototype hypothesis-similarities in the nature of close relationships in infancy and adulthood 3. Importance of early experience Contributions of Freud Every thought, behavior, emotion has meaning. This meaning comes from past or present significant experience. The meaning of an experience or reaction or decision is often hidden from the person. Central idea is the unconscious. Attachment theory John Bowlby The goal of the attachment system is to promote safety (& feelings of security) across the lifespan through a secure base relationship with an attachment figure Attachment figures are a few key individuals in life, e.g., parents and partners The attachment system serves as a balance to exploration: optimizing both mastery and safety 3

4 Components of the attachment system Behavior The secure base phenomenon Emotion Triggers activation of the system Associated with quality of attachment Cognition Script or representation associated with behavior/emotion pattern Development of attachment representations Secure base behaviors become automatic Expectations lead to the development of scripts or cognitive representations Cognitive representations are a framework or filter for understanding attachment experiences Representations are a guide for behavior in attachment-relevant situations What does Attachment Behavior look like? The Secure Base Phenomenon Stranger Everett Waters, Toy 10 9 Chair Toy 13 Look at mom 1 Baby Mom Toy Toy 2 Toy 8 TV 4 Toy 5 Look at mom 6 Look at mom Cat 4

5 Separations at airports Fraley & Shaver, 1998 First, how is attachment behavior manifested in adulthood? Phase 1: Descriptions from field notes Brief hug Before boarding he reads the newspaper and she leans her head on her shoulder Massages her inner thigh Kissed several times when she tried to leave Both held each for approximately 5 minutes Eye to eye contact She stands on her tip toes to kiss him She walks away crying Prolonged hug at the gate She, in a comforting manner, strokes his face Descriptions from field notes Extended hug and stroking (last for about 5 minutes Tears in eyes: both members wipe the other s tears She goes back to the window and watches the plane leave Holding hands Petting each other s head He kisses her head several times He leaves quickly Sitting close Long hug; both are crying Sitting close 5

6 Descriptions from field notes She is still at window 20 minutes after the plane leaves Looks at wristwatch Crying At departure she is the last to board She gives him money to buy coffee Extended hand stretch He leaves before she boards the plane but watches her from a distance without her knowledge Intimate kiss He waves good bye when boarding plane He kisses her head several times He leaves quickly She walks away crying Transferred observations to scale Contact Seeking Kissing Watching from window after partner has boarded Embracing the partner Interrupted leaving (leaving, then coming back; turning back; looking at plane) Contact Maintenance Contact duration Hugging Unwillingness to let go Clinging, kneading, and so forth Eye-to-eye contact Being near the end of line at boarding "Extended hand stretch" Hands held or body held Caregiving Petting, stroking Caregiving, reassurance Silent whisper ("I love you") Embracing the other to comfort Avoidance Looking elsewhere (not directly at partner) Turning away Trying to hurry the separation Breaking off contact Sexuality Sexual touching Sexual caressing (hand on inner thigh) Intimate kissing Sadness Tears, crying Facial expressions of sadness Resistance Wanting to embrace or be held, but also resisting contact Signs of anger, annoyance, or pouting 6

7 Observation with Intervention Structured Observation: Researcher sets up (structures) a specific situation in order to observe people s behavior. Strange Situation Mary Ainsworth Sequence of events designed to increase the child s stress levels mildly Critical question: How do children utilize their caregiver to deal with their feeling of stress? Episodes 1 2: Baseline 1. Experimenter greets Baby & Caregiver 2. Experimenter leaves while Baby & Caregiver play with toys. - caregiver does not initiate interaction but is responsive to bids for attention 7

8 Episode 3: Stranger 3. Stranger comes in for 3 minutes Sits quietly (1 minute) Talks with Caregiver (1 minute) Interacts with baby (1 minute) Question: How does the baby react to the presence of stranger? Episodes 4 & 5: Caregiver Exits & Returns 4. The caregiver takes off leaving the baby with stranger alone Is there any separation protest Is the stranger able to comfort the child? 5. Caregiver comes back How easily is the infant comforted by the caregiver? Episodes 6-8: Baby alone, then rejoined 6. Both the caregiver and stranger leave What happens? 7. Stranger returns Can she comfort the baby? 8. Caregiver comes back What happens then? 8

9 Strange Situation : BBC Video Strange Situation Scoring Proximity and contact seeking behavior Contact maintaining behavior Resistant behavior Avoidant behavior Attachment Classifications Four types of attachment: Securely Attached (B) Avoidant (A) Resistant (C) Disorganized-disoriented (D) 9

10 Infant/Securely attached 60-65% of children are secure Use caregiver as a secure base Communicates affect during play Actively seeks contact/interaction at reunion Shows no resistance to contact or interaction When distressed -- is soothed by contact with caregiver Infant/Avoidant (A) 20-25% Little or no proximity seeking Little or no distress on separation Little affective sharing Often affiliates to stranger Often conspicuous avoidance of caregiver on reunion Infant/Resistant (C) ~10% Appear ambivalent toward caregiver Seek proximity and contact but also show open resistance to contact Super-anxious during separation Not easily soothed at reunion Seem angry or passive toward parent 10

11 Infant/Disorganized-disoriented (D) ~10% Disorganized sequences: Approach then avoid Contradictory behavior Odd motor activity: Inappropriate stereotyped, repetitive gestures Attachment behavior directed toward stranger when caregiver returns Depressed, dazed, disoriented, affectless Why would prevent you from using your mother as a secure base? Mother s Caregiving Sensitivity-Insensitivity Acceptance-Rejection Cooperation-Interference Assessing Attachment Behavior in Adulthood: Structured Observations Marital Interaction Task 15 minute- Discuss problem/conflict area Coding for Secure Base Support and Secure Base Use 11

12 Secure Base Use Scale Subject able to convey his/her distress clearly initially and throughout the discussion, is able to and wants to approach their partner, and is satisfied with the partner s effort to help Secure Base Use Scale 1=Poor Secure Base Use A. has not expressed his/her concern in any clear way. -not comforted and may remain distressed or becomes more distressed with time -appears very anxious and wary about partner s availability and sensitivity or seems to lack the ability to respond to the partner s efforts. B. repeatedly verbally attacking or uses physical attack even once. C. there is little or no expressed distress around topics would be highly upsetting to most (e.g., infidelity, high debt with a partner who spends excessively or has used up savings) Secure Base Use Scale: The baby 3= Fair Secure Base Use A. not expressed distress very well - somewhat wary - fairly clear and for most part stays on topic - expectation that the partner can or should help is not clearly evident B. a verbally careseeker should not get above a 3 C. there is little distress or concern on topic that would be moderately upsetting to most (e.g., some financial problems, trouble with in-laws) 12

13 Secure Base Use Scale 5= Moderately good secure base use A. been fairly clear in their expression of distress and need, although may have been a little vague. - has approached the partner effectively and found partner tolerably responsive. Fairly relaxed and happy at the end. Secure Base Use Scale 7= Very good secure base use A. has expressed distress and need for help clearly initially and throughout the discussion. Appears fully confident that the partner should be responsive. By end, seems more relaxed and satisfied. Secure Base Support Scale- the Caregiver High score indicates sensitivity to partner s distress, understanding of the problem and responsiveness resulting in the partner being comforted considerably. 13

14 Secure Base Support Scale- The cargiver 1= No apparent sensitivity and responsiveness A. has not been interested in the partner or shown support. Ignores the partner, is aggressive, belittling, and/or threatening toward partner B. fails to recognize there is a problem (utterly clueless) or is clueless about the nature of the problem Secure Base Support Scale 3= Low sensitivity and responsiveness has made few efforts to support or respond to partner. Efforts are not well sustained, and may appear irritated with the partner most of the time and/or is unclear about the partner s concerns, and/or function of the relationship from an attachment perspective Secure Base Support Scale 5= Reasonable sensitivity and responsiveness made some efforts to understand and respond supportively. There may be some rejection of the partner s thoughts or feelings, but for the most part he/she has been interested in the partner and attempted to respond to the issues raised. The joint efforts/purpose of the partnership are usually mentioned. 14

15 Secure Base Support Scale 7= Highly sensitive and responsive to partner s distress interested in his/her partner, and makes clear efforts to understand and respond supportively to the partner and relationship. Even if the couple is disagreeing strongly, the underlying respect of this subject for his/her partner is obvious to the scorer, and the goal/function of the secure base partnership is clearly expressed and valued. How can I trust the scores: interobserver reliability How to assess interobserver reliability? If Nominal Scale: percentage agreement Number of times two observers agree X 100 Number of opportunities to agree Analyzing Observational Data If Interval and Ratio Scales: Interobserver reliability is assessed using correlations Obtain the correlation between two observers ratings: Observer 1 Observer 2 Wife Husband Wife Husband

16 Same structured task: Different Coding system Rapid Marital Interaction Coding System (Heyman & Vivian, 1995) Based on communication theory 11 codes Negative codes Observation with Intervention, continued Field Experiment: Researcher manipulates an independent variable in a natural setting and observes behavior. Use of confederates Observation with Intervention Participant Observation: Observer is an active participant in the natural setting he or she observes. undisguised: people in the setting knows they are being observed disguised: people don t know they are being observed 16

17 Problems with Coding Behaviors characteristics of the observers: bored, amount of experience, looking at different things (what you and I consider to be effective may differ) Researchers need to train their observers and provide feedback about errors and discrepancies. events and behaviors to be observed and recorded are not clearly defined: The researcher needs to be clear to both observers what she means by effective. It s best to provide examples. Problems with Observational Research Problems associated with observational research methods include the influence of the observer and observer bias. Influence of the observer: Reactivity Reactivity occurs when individuals change their usual behavior when they know they are being observed. This is a problem because researchers want to observe people s usual behavior. More problems How do individuals know what their behavior should be like in an observational study? Demand Characteristics: Research participants pay attention to the cues and information available in a situation. These demand characteristics--characteristics of a situation that demand particular responses--tell individuals how they should behave. 17

18 Thinking Critically About Observational Research Controlling Reactivity Conceal the observer. Use disguised participant observation. Use indirect (unobtrusive) observation. Adapt participants to the presence of the observer. More Problems: The Observer Observer Bias Observers often have certain expectations for behavior. In their hypotheses, researchers predict in advance what they think will happen in a study. These expectations may lead observers to look at only particular aspects of behavior--for example, behavior that confirms their hypotheses. Observer bias refers to the systematic errors in observation that result from observers expectations (expectancy effects). 18