Cognition AP Psychology

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Franklin Austin
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1 Cgnitin AP Psychlgy Definitin: The mental prcesses prtin f psychlgy; AKA 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. MEMORY: The cgnitive prcess that allws individuals t knwledge f infrmatin and events.

1 1 Cgnitin AP Psychlgy Definitin: The mental prcesses prtin f psychlgy; AKA MEMORY: The cgnitive prcess that allws individuals t knwledge f infrmatin and events. Infrmatin Prcessing: infrmatin travels thrugh the system, including perceptin, memry creatin, reasning, and frmulating respnses Encding The infrmatin gets ur brains in a way that allws it t be stred. Strage The infrmatin is in a way that allws it t later be retrieved. Retrieval and the infrmatin, prducing it in a frm similar t what was encded. The Atkinsn-Shiffrin Mdel (1968) 1. Stimuli are by ur senses and held briefly in sensry memry. 2. Sme f this infrmatin is prcessed int shrt-term memry and encded thrugh (mentally eching a term). 3. Infrmatin then mves int lng-term memry where it can be later. Yu cmpleted a reading guide n the encding prcess s we will nt be cvering that in class.

MEMORY STORAGE The brain is NOT like a hard drive. Memries are NOT in islated files, but are in verlapping. The brain s lng-term memry strage des get full; it gets mre elabrately rewired and.

2 MEMORY STORAGE The brain is NOT like a hard drive. Memries are NOT in islated files, but are in verlapping. The brain s lng-term memry strage des get full; it gets mre elabrately rewired and. Parts f each memry can be distributed thrughut the brain. Memry f a particular kitchen table may be a linkage amng netwrks fr kitchen, meal, wden, hme, legs, and sit. Karl Lashley ( ) shwed that rats wh had learned a maze retained parts f that memry, even when varius small parts f their brain were remved. If memry is stred thrughut the brain, hw des it get in there, and hw d we retrieve it and use it? There are different strage and retrieval/activatin systems in the brain fr explicit/ declarative memry and fr implicit/ prcedural memry. When becme invlved, yet anther part f the brain can mark/flag sme memries fr retrieval. The strage ccurs by changing hw neurns t each ther in rder t make sme well-used neural netwrks f neurns easier t activate tgether. Explicit Memry Prcessing Explicit/ memries include facts, stries, and meanings f wrds such as the first time riding a bike, r facts abut types f bicycles. Retrieval and use f explicit memries, which is in part a wrking memry r executive functin, is directed by the. Encding and strage f explicit memries is facilitated by the. Events and facts are held there fr a cuple f days befre, mving t ther parts f the brain fr lng-term strage. Much f this cnslidatin ccurs during. Implicit Memry Prcessing Implicit memries include skills, prcedures, and cnditined assciatins. The ( little brain ) frms and stres ur cnditined respnses. We can stre a phbic respnse even if we can t recall hw we acquired the fear. The basal ganglia, next t the thalamus, cntrls mvement, and frms and stres memry and mtr skills. We can learn t ride a bicycle even if we can t recall having the lessn. 2

Emtins and Memry Strng emtins, especially, can memry frmatin. Flashbulb memries refer t emtinally events that becme burned in as a vivid-seeming memry.

3 Emtins and Memry Strng emtins, especially, can memry frmatin. Flashbulb memries refer t emtinally events that becme burned in as a vivid-seeming memry. Nte that flashbulb memries are nt as as they feel. Vividly string infrmatin abut dangers may have helped ur ancestrs survive. Hw des intense emtin cause the brain t frm intense memries? Emtins can trigger a rise in stress. These hrmnes trigger activity in the, lcated next t the memry-frming hippcampus. The amygdala increases memry-frming activity and engages the frntal lbes and basal ganglia t tag the memries as. As a result, the memries are stred with mre sensry and emtinal. These details can trigger a rapid, unintended f the memry. Traumatized peple can have intrusive recall that is s vivid that it feels like reexperiencing the event. Messing with Lng-Term Ptentiatin (LTP) and that prevent lng-term ptentiatin (LTP) can prevent and even erase recent learning. Beta-blcker heart medicatin and benzdiazepine anti-anxiety medicatin Preventing LTP keeps new memries frm cnslidating int lng-term memries. Fr example, mice frget hw t run a maze. Drugs that bst LTP help mice learn a maze mre and with fewer mistakes. Glutamate, the excitatry neurtransmitter; raising levels f glutamate bsts LTP and learning. SUMMARY OF TYPES OF MEMORY PROCESSING 3

MEMORY RETRIEVAL Recall: sme peple, thrugh practice, visual strategies, r bilgical differences, have the ability t stre and recall f wrds r digits, reprducing them years later ( ) Recgnitin: the

4 MEMORY RETRIEVAL Recall: sme peple, thrugh practice, visual strategies, r bilgical differences, have the ability t stre and recall f wrds r digits, reprducing them years later ( ) Recgnitin: the average persn can view new faces and places, and later can ntice with accuracy which nes they ve seen befre ( ) Relearning: sme peple are unable t frm memries, especially f episdes; althugh they wuld nt recall a puzzle-slving lessn, they might still slve the puzzle faster each lessn Lessns frm each f these demnstratins: 1. ur strage and recall capacity is virtually 2. ur capacity fr recgnitin is than ur capacity fr recall 3. relearning can highlight that are there even if we can t recall frming them Relearning Time as a Measure f Retentin In the late 1800s, Hermann Ebbinghaus studied anther measure f memry functining: hw much time des it take t relearn and regain f material? He studied the memrizatin f (THB YOX KVU EHM) s that depth f prcessing r prelearning wuld nt be a factr. The mre times he rehearsed ut lud n day 1, the less time he needed t relearn/memrize the same letters n day 2. This applies best t when there is n meaning and n way t d the deep prcessing. Priming Priming triggers a thread f that bring us t a cncept, just as a spider feels mvement in a web and fllws it t find the bug. Our minds wrk by having ne idea anther; this maintains a flw f thught. Priming has been called memry because it affects us. Study: Peple primed with mney-related wrds were less likely t then help anther persn. Study: Priming with an image f Santa Claus led kids t share mre candy. Study: peple primed with a missing child pster then misinterpreted ambiguus adultchild interactins as kidnapping. 4

5 In the case f tree bark vs. dg bark, the path we fllw in ur thughts can be channeled by priming. We may have and assciatins stred in memry that als influence ur.

We retrieve a memry mre easily when in the cntext as when we frmed the memry. Did yu frget a psychlgy cncept? Just sitting dwn and pening yur bk might bring the memry back.

5 5 In the case f tree bark vs. dg bark, the path we fllw in ur thughts can be channeled by priming. We may have and assciatins stred in memry that als influence ur. Cntext-Dependent Memry Part f the web f assciatins f a memry is the cntext. What else was ging n at the time we frmed the memry? We retrieve a memry mre easily when in the cntext as when we frmed the memry. Did yu frget a psychlgy cncept? Just sitting dwn and pening yur bk might bring the memry back. State-Dependent Memry Our memries are nt just linked t the cntext in which we learned them. Memries can als be tied t the state we were in when we frmed the memry. Md-cngruent memry refers t the tendency t selectively recall that are cnsistent with ne s current md. This biased memry then ur current md! The Serial Psitin Effect Priming and cntext cues are nt the nly factrs which make memry retrieval. The serial psitin effect refers t the tendency, when learning infrmatin in a, t mre likely recall the first items ( effect) and the last items ( effect). ************************************************************************************* FORGETFULNESS Frgetfulness is a frm f freedm Khalil Gibran Jill Price (b. 1965) has ; she nt nly recalls everything, but is unable t anything. Fr Jill, bth the imprtant and the mundane are accessible, frming a running mvie f images and infrmatin that run simultaneusly with current stimuli. She has said, I ll be talking t smene and [als] seeing smething else. Anther pssible prblem if we were unable t frget: we might nt well n current stimuli because f memries.

The Brain and the Tw-Track Mind: The Case f Henry Mlaisn ( H.M. ) In 1953, the remval f H.M. s hippcampus at age 27 ended his, but als ended his ability t frm explicit memries. H.M. culd learn new skills, prcedures, lcatins f bjects, and games, but had n memry f the lessns r the instructrs.

What is his cnditin called? Antergrade Amnesia The Tw Types f Amnesia Retrgrade amnesia refers t an inability t memry f the past. Retrgrade amnesia can be caused by injury r trauma and is ften.

6 The Brain and the Tw-Track Mind: The Case f Henry Mlaisn ( H.M. ) In 1953, the remval f H.M. s hippcampus at age 27 ended his, but als ended his ability t frm explicit memries. H.M. culd learn new skills, prcedures, lcatins f bjects, and games, but had n memry f the lessns r the instructrs. Why? These are examples f memries and autmatic prcessing (learning his way arund a neighbrhd r huse), and are prcessed in ther parts f the brain H.M. als retained memries frm befre the surgery. What is his cnditin called? Antergrade Amnesia The Tw Types f Amnesia Retrgrade amnesia refers t an inability t memry f the past. Retrgrade amnesia can be caused by injury r trauma and is ften. It can als be caused by mre severe brain ; in that case, it may include antergrade amnesia. 6 Antergrade amnesia refers t an inability t new lng-term declarative/ explicit memries. H.M. and Jimmy lived with n memries f life surgery. See als the mvie Mement. Mst ther mvie amnesia is retrgrade amnesia. Encding Failure If we gt the penny image wrng, did we fail t retrieve the infrmatin? It culd be that we never paid t the penny details and didn t select them frm memry t hld in memry. Even if we nce lked at the penny and paid attentin t it, we still didn t bther rehearsing it and encding it int lng term memry.

7 7 Strage Decay Material encded int lng term memry will decay if the memry is never, recalled, and re-stred. Decay is LTP in (r like pruning). Unused cnnectins and netwrks wither while well-used memry traces are maintained. Example: Inside-Out Decay tends t level ff. Memry fr bth nnsense syllables and Spanish lessns decays rapidly. Hwever, what hasn t decayed tends t stay intact lng-term. Tip f the Tngue: Retrieval Failure Smetimes, the memry itself des nt decay. Instead, what decays are the and links that help us find ur way t the memry. As a result, sme stred memries seem just belw the surface: I knw the name...it starts with a B maybe T prevent retrieval failure when string and rehearsing memries, yu can build assciatins, linking images, rhymes, categries, lists, and cues. This retrieval failure is prminent in, when cnnectins acrss the brain are breaking dwn and even everyday wrds and the names f friends can be hard t retrieve. Psychtherapy can the functinal impairment by helping develp f priming and cuing, and building new pathways and assciatins t and help retrieve memries. Interference and Psitive Transfer Anther dwnside f nt frgetting is that ld and new memries can with each ther, making it difficult t stre new memries and retrieve ld nes. Occasinally, the ppsite happens. In psitive transfer, infrmatin (like algebra) makes it easier t learn related infrmatin (like calculus). Practive interference ccurs when past infrmatin interferes (in a frward-acting way) with learning new infrmatin. Yu have many memries f a previus principal, and this memry makes it difficult t learn the new principal s name. Yu had t change , but yu keep typing the ld ne and can t seem t memrize the new ne.

8 8 Retractive Interference and Sleep Retractive interference ccurs when new stimuli/learning interferes with the strage and retrieval f previusly frmed memries. In ne study, students wh studied right eight hurs f sleep had better recall than thse wh studied befre eight hurs f daily. The daily activities retractively interfered with the mrning s learning. Mtivated Frgetting Memry is fallible and, but can we practice mtivated frgetting, that is, t frget r t change ur memries? Sigmund Freud believed that we smetimes make an uncnscius decisin t bury ur -prvking memries and hide them frm cnscius awareness. He called this. New techniques f psychtherapy and medicatin interventins may allw us t (prevent recnslidatin f) recalled memries. Why is ur memry full f errrs? Memry nt nly gets frgtten, but it gets (imagined, selected, changed, and rebuilt). Memries are every time we recall (actually, recnstruct) them. Then they are altered again when we the memry (using wrking memry t send them int lng term strage). Later infrmatin alters earlier memries. N matter hw accurate and vide-like ur memry seems, it is full f alteratins. The Misinfrmatin Effect: Incrprating infrmatin int ne s memry f an event In 1974, Elizabeth Lftus and Jhn Palmer asked peple t watch a vide f a minr car accident. The participants were then asked, Hw fast were cars ging when they hit each ther? Thse wh were asked,...when the cars smashed int each ther? reprted speeds and remembered brken glass that wasn t there. Implanted Memries Imaginatin Inflatin Simply an event can make it seem like a real memry. Once we have an inaccurate memry, we tend t add mre imagined details, as perhaps we d fr all memries. Why des this happen? Visualizing and actually seeing an event activate brain areas. In ne study, students were tld a false stry that spiled egg salad had made them ill in childhd. As a result, many students became [even] t eat egg salad sandwiches in the future. In a study by Elizabeth Lftus, peple were asked t prvide details f a incident in childhd when they had been lst in a shpping mall.

9 9 Even thugh there actually had been such incident, by trying t picture details, mst peple came t believe that the incident had actually happened. Lessns: By trying t help smene recall a memry, yu may a memry. Yu can t tell hw real a memry is by hw real it feels. Surce Amnesia/Misattributin Have yu ever discussed a childhd memry with a family member nly t find that the memry was: frm a mvie yu saw, r bk yu read? frm a stry smene tld yu abut yur childhd, but they were kidding? frm a dream yu used t have? frm a sibling s experience? If s, yur memry fr the event may have been, but yu experienced surce amnesia: frgetting where the stry came frm, and the surce t yur wn experience. Déjà vu Déjà vu refers t the feeling that yu re in a situatin that yu ve seen r have been in. In an experiment in the text, students gt this feeling, because they actually were shwn an image previusly. Hwever, we can feel very certain that we ve seen a situatin befre even when we have nt. This can be seen as : a memry (frm current sensry memry) that we misattribute as being frm lng term memry. Why des this happen? Smetimes ur sense f familiarity and kicks in t sn, and ur brain explains this as being caused by prir experience.

10 10 Mdifying the Mdel: Mre ges n in shrt-term memry besides rehearsal; this is nw called wrking memry. Sme infrmatin seems t g straight frm sensry experience int lng-term memry; this is. Wrking Memry: Functins The shrt-term memry is wrking in many ways. It hlds infrmatin nt just t rehearse it, but t it (such as hearing a wrd prblem in math and ding it in yur head). Shrt-term memry infrmatin frm lng-term memry with new infrmatin cming in frm sensry memry. Auditry rehearsal Executive functins Visspatial sketchpad repeating a passwrd t memrize it chsing what t attend t, respnd t rearranging rm furniture in yur mind Dual-Track Prcessing: Explicit and Implicit Memries S far, we have been talking abut explicit/ memries. These are facts and experiences that we can knw and recall. Our minds acquire this infrmatin thrugh. Explicit memries are frmed thrugh studying, rehearsing, thinking, prcessing, and then string infrmatin in lng-term memry. Sme memries are frmed withut ging thrugh all the Atkinsn-Shiffrin stages. These are implicit memries, the nes we are f and thus dn t declare /talk abut. These memries are typically frmed thrugh. Implicit memries are frmed withut ur awareness that we are building a memry, and withut rehearsal r ther prcessing in wrking memry. memry, such as knwing hw t ride a bike, and well-practiced knwledge such as wrd meanings Cnditined, such as a smell that triggers thughts f a favrite place Infrmatin abut, such as being able t picture where things are after walking thrugh a rm Infrmatin abut, such as retracing a sequence f events if yu lst smething

11 Infrmatin abut, such as thinking, I just nticed that this is the third texting driver I ve passed tday. Sensry Memry Sensry memry refers t the immediate, very recrding f sensry infrmatin befre it is prcessed int shrt-term, wrking, r lng-term memry. We very briefly capture a sensry memry, analgus t an r an, f all the sensatins we take in. Hw brief? Sensry memry cnsists f abut a secnd ech, r a f a secnd image. Evidence f auditry sensry memry, called memry, can ccur after smene says, what did I just say? Even if yu weren t paying attentin, yu can retrieve abut the last eight wrds frm echic memry. Why d yu think sensry memry is mre brief fr images than fr sunds? 11 Icnic (Visual Memry): Gerge Sperling (b. 1934) expsed peple t a 1/20 th f-asecnd view f a grid f letters, fllwed by a tne which tld them which rw f letters t pull frm icnic memry and recall. Withut the tne, peple recalled abut f the letters; with the tne, recall fr any f the rws was typically. Capacity f Shrt-Term and Wrking Memry If sme infrmatin is selected frm sensry memry t be sent t shrt-term memry, hw much infrmatin can we hld there? Gerge Miller (b. 1920) prpsed that we can hld infrmatin bits (fr example, a string f 5 t 9 letters). Mre recent research suggests that the average persn, free frm distractin, can hld abut: digits, letters, r wrds. Wrking Memry, which uses rehearsal, fcus, analysis, linking, and ther prcessing, has capacity than shrt-term memry. The capacity f wrking memry varies; sme peple have better cncentratin. Test: see hw many f these letters and numbers yu can recall after they disappear. N need fr a hyphen befre the V.

12 Duratin f Shrt-Term Memry (STM) Llyd Petersn and Margaret Petersn wanted t knw the duratin f shrt term memry? Their experiment (1959): 1. Peple were given triplets f (e.g., VMF ). 2.

12 12 Duratin f Shrt-Term Memry (STM) Llyd Petersn and Margaret Petersn wanted t knw the duratin f shrt term memry? Their experiment (1959): 1. Peple were given triplets f (e.g., VMF ). 2. T prevent rehearsing, the subjects had t d a distracting task (cunting backward frm 100 by 3 s). 3. Peple were then tested at varius times fr recall. Result: After secnds, mst memry f the cnsnants had decayed and culd nt be retrieved. Effrtful Prcessing Strategies If we have shrt-term recall f nly 7 letters, but can remember 5 wrds, desn t that mean we culd remember mre than 7 letters if we culd grup them int wrds? This is an example f an effrtful prcessing strategy, a way t encde infrmatin int memry t keep it frm and make it easier t retrieve. Effrtful prcessing is als knwn as. Examples: Chunking (gruping) Mnemnics: images, maps, and peg-wrds A mnemnic is a memry trick that cnnects infrmatin t existing memry strengths such as r. A peg wrd system refers t the technique f visually assciating new wrds with an g list that is already memrized alng with numbers. Fr example, due can be pictured written n a dr, and dr = 4. Hierarchies/categries Rehearsal, especially distributed practice Massed Practice refers t infrmatin all at nce. It is nt time-effective. The spacing effect was first nted by Hermann Ebbinghaus in the late 1800s. Yu will develp better retentin and recall, especially in the lng run, if yu use the same amunt f study time ver many sessins. This desn t mean yu have t study every day. Memry researcher Harry Bahrick nted that the the time between study sessins, the the lng-term retentin, and the fewer sessins yu need! The best way t practice? Cnsider the testing effect. Henry Rediger (b. 1947) fund that if yur distributed practice includes (having t answer questins abut

13 13 the material), yu will learn mre and retain mre than if yu merely reread. Deep prcessing When encding infrmatin, we are mre likely t retain it if we deeply prcess even a simple wrd list by fcusing n the semantics ( ) f the wrds. Shallw, prcessing refers t memrizing the appearance r sund f wrds. Semantic prcessing Making infrmatin persnally meaningful We can memrize a set f instructins mre easily if we figure ut what they mean rather than seeing them as set f wrds. Memrizing meaningful material takes the effrt f memrizing nnsense syllables. Actrs memrize lines (and students memrize pems) mre easily by deciding n the feelings and meanings behind the wrds, s ne line flws naturally t the next. The self-reference effect, relating material t, aids encding and retentin. Nw try again, but this time, cnsider hw each wrd relates t yu. *************************************************************************************

Success Criteria: Extend your thinking:

Success Criteria: Extend your thinking: Discussin Directr Yur jb is t invlve thers in cnversatin abut the text by getting them t think and talk abut the BIG IDEAS in the chapter/ sectin they have just read. Cmpse 5 questins that yu want t discuss