Introduction to Psychology and Methods of Research. Psychology is both a science and profession chology.

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1 Introduction to Psychology and Methods of Research Psychology is both a science and profession chology.jpg

2 Defining Psychology Psychology comes from the root words, which means mind, and the word, meaning knowledge or study. However, because the mind can t be directly, psychology is now defined as the scientific study or discipline that studies behavior and mental processes. Behavior- refers to overt behaviors (observable actions and responses) or covert behaviors (are private, internal activities, such as thinking, remembering, and other mental events).

3 A Brief History of Psychology Psychology began centuries ago as a branch of philosophy, the study of knowledge, reality, and human nature. The ancient Greek philosophers who had the most profound influence on psychological thinking were Socrates ( B.C.), Plato ( B.C.), and Aristotle ( B.C.). Aristotle argued that the pursuit of knowledge should be based on experience with the world around us, not on pure thought or reasoning. Psychology did not begin to emerge as a scientific discipline; until the late nineteenth century. One of the first scientists to study psychological processes was the German physiologist Gustav Theodor Fechner ( ). Fechner studied psychophyics. However, the founding of psychology as an independent science is usually credited to a German scientist, Wilhelm Wundt, because in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, he set up the first psychological laboratory to study conscious experience. Therefore, he is referred to as being the father of psychology.

4 Structuralism Wundt s used what is called introspection or looking inward, careful self-examination and reporting of one s conscious experience-what you are perceiving, feeling, thinking, or sensing at this exact moment as you are looking at this screen. What are you feeling/thinking at this moment? Wundt s ideas were carried to the U.S. by Edward Titchener. Titchener called Wundt s ideas structuralism because they dealt with the structure of mental life; breaking down mental experiences into their component parts. The founder of American psychology is generally accredited to William James. James founded Functionalism, which studies how behavior helps individuals adapt to the demands placed on them in their environment; how their behavior helps them/you to survive and adapt (A ing this class); what are the functions that underlie your mental processes-why do you do what you do???

5 Behaviorism Following functionalism in the early 1900s is Behaviorism. The founder of Behaviorism is the American psychologist John Watson( ). Watson argued that psychology should limit itself to the study of overt, observable behavior. He believed that the environment molds the behavior of humans and other animals. B.F. Skinner argued that behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments, the environmental consequences that follow specific responses. Following Behaviorism was Gestalt Psychology. Gestalt Psychology said that your brain structures your perceptions of the world in terms of meaningful patterns or wholes. It was founded by Max Wertheimer. He studied thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analyzing experiences into parts. Psychoanalytic Psychology- Was developed by an Austrian doctor named Sigmund Freud. Freud believed that mental life is like an iceberg; only a small part is exposed to view. The area of the mind that lies outside of personal awareness he called- the unconscious.

6 The Unconscious According to Freud, your behavior is deeply influenced by your unconscious, which is the repository of primitive sexual and aggressive drives or instincts and of the wishes, impulses, and urges that arise from those drives. or instincts. Freud believed that early childhood experiences play a determining role in shaping your personalities and behavior. He believed that abnormal behavior patterns are rooted in unconscious conflicts originating in childhood, e.g. fears and phobias. Freud also theorized that many unconscious thoughts are threatening; hence, they are repressed (held out of awareness). But sometimes, he believed, they are revealed by dreams, emotions, or slips of the tongue. Freud also believed that all thoughts, emotions, and actions are determined. Freud believed that childhood does affect adult personality- the child is father/mother to the man/woman.

7 Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology The Behavioral Perspective- Focuses on what is observable as well as the role of learning in behavior. Currently, many psychologists, have adopted a learning-based model called socialcognitive theory. Practitioners of this model believe that behavior is shaped not only by environmental factors, such as rewards and punishments, but also by cognitive factors, such as the value placed on different objects or goals and expectancies about the outcomes of behavior, e.g., if I do x, will y follow?

8 Behavior therapy Behavior therapy involves the systematic application of learning principles that are grounded in the behaviorist tradition of Watson and Skinner; to acquire more adaptive behaviors to overcome psychological problems.

9 The Psychodynamic Perspective/Psychoanalysis. Most of all, Freud is known for creating psychoanalysis, the first talking therapy. Freudian psychotherapy explores unconscious conflicts and emotional problems. Humanistic Perspective: Believed that psychology should focus on conscious experiences, even if those experiences are subjective and cannot be directly observed and scientifically measured.

10 Humanistic Psychology Humanism is a view that focuses on understanding subjective human experience. Humanistic psychologists are interested in human problems, potentials, and ideals. Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, and other humanists rejected the Freudian idea that we are ruled by unconscious forces; Determinism=the idea that behavior is determined by forces beyond our control. The humanists stress free will, the ability to make voluntary choices.

11 The Physiological Perspective This perspective focuses on the relationship between biological processes and behavior, including the roles of heredity, hormones, and the nervous system. Evolutionary Psychology focuses on the role of evolutionary processes involved in shaping behavior, including aggression, mating behavior, and altruistic behavior.

12 The Cognitive Perspective Psychologists who adopt this perspective, study the mental processes by which we acquire knowledge- how we learn, form concepts, solve problems, make decisions, and use language. The Sociocultural Perspective: Psychologists that prescribe to this perspective examine how behavior and attitudes are shaped by the social and cultural influences to which people are exposed.

13 The Increasing Diversity of Contemporary Society Hispanic Americans and African Americans constitute the nation s largest ethnic minority groups, each accounting for about 13% of the population. Native Americans constitute about 1%. Hispanic Americans and Asian Americans are the two fastest growing population groups in the United States. Asian Americans are also the most diverse U.S. population group, encompassing people of Chinese, Filipino, Indian, Korean, Cambodian, Vietnamese, Japanese, and other Asian backgrounds.

14 Psychologists: Who they are and What they do/research Specialties Developmental psychologists- study the course of human growth and development, form conception to the death or cradle to the grave. Learning theorists- study how and why learning occurs in humans and animals. Personality theorist- study personality traits, motivation, and individual differences. Cognitive psychologists- are interested in thinking. Cultural psychologists- study the ways in which culture affects human behavior.

15 Psychologists: Who they are and What they do. Question - When you think of a psychologist, what thoughts comes to your mind? Psychology is a diverse profession because of the large number of areas in the field and because of the many different roles psychologists perform. Some psychologist conduct basic research research focus on acquiring knowledge even if such knowledge has no direct practical application; vs applied research research that attempts to find solutions to specific problems. Positive Psychology- is the study of human strengths, virtues, and optimal behavior, not our flaws. Founded by Martin Seligman

16 Specialty Areas of Psychology A psychologist is a person highly trained in the methods, factual knowledge, and theories of psychology. All psychologists study behavior and mental processes, but they pursue this knowledge in different ways, in different settings, and from different perspectives. Clinical psychologists treat psychological problems or do research on therapies and mental disorders. In contrast, counseling psychologists tend to address milder problems, such as poor adjustment at work or school. A psychiatrist is a medical doctor who treats mental disorders. Ethics- The psychologist s professional code stresses (1) high levels of competence, integrity, and responsibility; (2) respect for people s rights to privacy, dignity, confidentiality, and personal freedom; and (3) protection of the client s welfare.

17 Major Specialty Areas Be familiar with Concept chart 1.2. Know the Nature of Specialty for the: (1) Clinical psycologists; (2) School psychologist; (3) Developmental Psychologists; (4) Industrial/Organizational psychologists; (5)Health psychologist; (6) Neuropsychologists; (7) Geropsychologists; and (8) Sport psychologists. Professional Psychology: Becoming More Diverse - Christine Ladd-Franklin; Mary Whiton Calkins; Margaret Floy Washburn; Gilbert Haven Jones; Francis Sumner; J. Henry Alston; Kenneth Clark; and Richard Suinn.

18 Appreciating Social and Cultural Differences The Impact of Culture- Most of what we think, feel, and do is influenced in one way or another by the social and cultural worlds in which we live. Cultural Relativity- Is the notion that behavior must be judged relative to the values of the culture in which it occurs; which can greatly affect the diagnosis of mental disorders. A Broader View of Diversity- cultural differences, age, ethnicity, gender, religion, disability, and sexual orientation all affect the social norms that guide behavior. Social norms are rules that define acceptable and expected behavior for members of various groups. All too often, the unstated standard for judging what is average, normal, or correct is the behavior of white, middle-class males. To fully understand human behavior, psychologists need to know how people differ, as well as the ways in which we are all alike.

19 Research Methods in Psychology Psychologists are trained to be skeptical of claims and arguments that are not grounded in evidence; they use the empirical approach. Meaning, their information is based on evidence gathered from experiments and careful observation. The Objectives of Science: To Describe, Explain, Predict, and Control. Description An accurate and clear description is a cornerstone of science; it is typically based on making a detailed record of behavioral observations. Inferences are not descriptions but are conclusions drawn from observations. Explanation - Usually means we understand and can state the causes of a behavior. Psychologists seek to explain events by developing theories that lead to predictions that can be tested through research and careful observation.

20 The Objectives of Science Prediction Refers to one s ability to forecast behavior accurately. Psychologists draw on their theoretical understanding of events to make predictions about future occurrences. Control Means to alter conditions that influence behavior in predictable ways; to help you gain greater mastery and control over your own life.

21 The Scientific Method The scientific method is based on careful collection of evidence, accurate description and measurement, precise definition, controlled observation, and repeatable results. In its ideal form the scientific method has six elements: (1) Making observations; (2) Defining a problem; (3) Proposing a hypothesis; (4) Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis; (5) Publishing results; and (6) Theory building. This author mentions 4 general steps: (1) Developing a research question, (2) framing the research question in the form of a hypothesis, (3) gathering evidence to test the hypothesis; and (4) drawing conclusions about the hypothesis.

22 Hypothesis Hypothesis is a predicted outcome of an experiment or an educated guess about the relationship between variables; a precise prediction about the outcomes of an experiment. Variables are factors or measures that vary within an experiment or among individuals. Statistical significance - refers to a finding that is unlikely to have been due to chance or random fluctuations.

23 Research Methods: How We Learn What We Know The Case Study Method: Is an in-depth study of one or more individuals. Random Sampling: A method of sampling in which each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected. Naturalistic observation allows us to study behavior that hasn t been tampered with by outside influences. A major problem is the observer effect, which refers to changes in a subject s behavior caused by an awareness of being observed. Observer bias is a related problem in which observers see what they expect to see or record only selected details. The Correlational Method A research method that examines relationships between variables.

24 Correlation Coefficients Correlation Coefficient is the strength and direction of a relationship. The numbering falls somewhere between and If the number is zero or close to zero, the association between two measures is weak or nonexistent. A positive correlation shows that increases in one measure are matched by increases in the other. In a negative correlation, increases in the first measure are associated with decreases in the second. Correlational studies help us discover relationships and make predictions. However, correlation does not demonstrate causation. Just because two things appear to be related does not mean that causation exists. Also, just because one thing appears to cause another does not confirm that it does.

25 The Experimental Method A variable is any condition that can change and that might affect the outcome of the experiment. Identifying causes and effects in an experiment involves three types of variables: Independent variables- are conditions altered or varied by the experimenter, who sets their size, amount, or value. IV s are suspected causes for differences in behavior. Dependent variables- measure the results of the experiment. They reveal the effects that independent variables have on behavior. Extraneous variables- are conditions that a researcher wishes to prevent from affecting the outcome of the experiment.

26 Experimental Method The experimental group consists of subjects exposed to the independent variable. Members of the control group are exposed to all conditions except the independent variable. Single-blind studies - Are studies in which research participants are kept uninformed about whether they are receiving the experimental drug or a placebo. Double-blind studies Are studies in which both participants and experimenters are kept uninformed about which participants receive the active drug and which receive the placebo. Informed consent Is an agreement to participate in a study following disclosure of information about the purposes and nature of the study and its potential risks and benefits.

27 Placebo Effects The placebo effect is the changes in behavior cause by belief that one has taken a drug. Self-fulfilling prophecy- is a prediction that prompts people to act in ways that make the prediction come true. Representative sample- A small, randomly selected part of a larger population that accurately reflects characteristics of the whole population. Population is an entire group of belonging to a particular category. Uncritical acceptance- Is the tendency to believe generally positive or flattering descriptions of oneself.

28 Becoming a Critical Thinker 1. Question everything Keep an open mind and weigh the evidence upon which claims are made 2. Clarify what you mean 3. Avoid oversimplifying Being angry 24/7 is genetics. Avoid overgeneralizing All college students will make more money than high school students. Don t confuse correlation with causation Consider the assumptions upon which claims are based, e.g., persons who are developmentally disabled, do not make good employees.

29 Becoming a Critical Thinker Examine sources of claims, Question the evidence upon which claims are based, e.g., having a college degree affords more opportunity in the job market than a high school degree, Consider alternative was of explaining claims, e.g., Having Dwyane Wade sneakers will cause you to be a better basketball player. The End STUDY STUDY STUDY