Research Methods, Design, and Analysis

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1 GLOBAL EDITION Research Methods, Design, and Analysis TWELFTH EDITION Larry B. Christensen R. Burke Johnson Lisa A. Turner

2 Executive Editor: Stephen Frail Editorial Assistant: Caroline Beimford Marketing Manager: Jeremy Intal Digital Media Editor: Lisa Dotson Media Project Manager: Pam Weldin Managing Editor: Linda Behrens Production Project Manager: Maria Piper Head of Learning Asset Acquisitions, Global Edition: Laura Dent Publishing Operations Director, Global Edition: Angshuman Chakraborty Publishing Administrator and Business Analyst, Global Edition: Shokhi Shah Khandelwal Acquisitions Editor, Global Edition: Sandhya Ghoshal Editorial Assistant: Sinjita Basu Senior Manufacturing Controller, Production, Global Edition: Trudy Kimber Senior Operations Supervisor: Mary Fischer Operations Specialist: Diane Peirano Cover Designer: Cover Photo: Shutterstock/Tashatuvango Full-Service Project Management: Anandakrishnan Natarajan/ Integra Software Services, Ltd. Cover Printer: Lehigh-Phoenix Color/Hagerstown Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: Pearson Education Limited 2015 The rights of Larry B. Christensen, R. Burke Johnson, and Lisa A. Turner to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, 12th edition, ISBN , by Larry B. Christensen, R. Burke Johnson, and Lisa A. Turner, published by Pearson Education All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6 10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. ISBN 10: ISBN 13: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Typeset in Meridien LT Std by Integra Software Services, Ltd. Printed and bound by Courier/Westford in The United States of America.

3 Research Methods, Design, and Analysis, Global Edition Table of Contents Cover Title Page Contents Preface Part I Chapter 1 Understanding Scientific Research Methods of Acquiring Knowledge Intuition Authority Rationalism Empiricism Science Induction and Deduction Hypothesis Testing Naturalism Kuhn and Paradigms Feyerabends Anarchistic Theory What Exactly Is Science? Basic Assumptions Underlying Scientific Research Uniformity or Regularity in Nature Reality in Nature Discoverability Characteristics of Scientific Research Control Operationalism Replication The Role of Theory in Scientific Research The Role of the Scientist in Psychological Research Curiosity Patience Objectivity Change Objectives of Psychological Research Description Explanation Prediction

4 Control or Influence Pseudoscience Chapter 2 Research Approaches and Data Collection Methods Variables in Quantitative Research Experimental Research Causation Cause Effect Required Conditions for Making the Claim of Causation The Psychological Experiment 1. Objective Observation 2. Of Phenomena That Are Made 3. In a Strictly Controlled Situation in Which One or More Example of an Experiment and Its Logic Advantages of the Experimental Approach 1. Causal Inference 2. Ability to Manipulate Variables 3. Control Disadvantages of the Experimental Approach 1. Does Not Test Effects of Nonmanipulated Variables 2. Artificiality 3. Inadequate Method of Scientific Inquiry Experimental Research Settings Field Experiments Laboratory Experiments Internet Experiments Nonexperimental Quantitative Research Correlational Study Natural Manipulation Research Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies Qualitative Research Major Methods of Data Collection Tests

5 Questionnaires Interviews Focus Groups Observation Existing or Secondary Data Part II Planning the Research Study Chapter 3 From Research Ideas to Hypothesis Formulation Sources of Research Ideas Everyday Life Practical Issues Past Research Theory Bias in Research Ideas Ideas Not Capable of Scientific Investigation Review of the Literature Getting Started Defining Objectives Doing the Search Books Psychological Journals Computerized or Electronic Databases Internet Resources Obtaining Resources Additional Information Sources Feasibility of the Study Formulating the Research Problem Defining the Research Problem Specificity of the Research Question Formulating Hypotheses

6 Chapter 4 Ethics in Scientific Research Research Ethics: What Are They? Table of Contents Relationship Between Society and Science Professional Issues Treatment of Research Participants Ethical Dilemmas Ethical Guidelines Beneficence and Nonmaleficence Fidelity and Responsibility Integrity Justice Respect for Peoples Rights and Dignity APA Ethical Standards for Research Ethical Issues to Consider When Conducting Research Institutional Approval Informed Consent Dispensing With Informed Consent Informed Consent and Minors Passive Versus Active Consent Deception Debriefing Coercion and Freedom to Decline Participation Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy Ethical Issues in Electronic Research Informed Consent and Internet Research Privacy and Internet Research Debriefing and Internet Research Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report Authorship Writing the Research Report Ethics of Animal (Nonhuman) Research Safeguards in the Use of Animals Animal Research Guidelines I. Justification of the Research II. Personnel III. Care and Housing of Animals IV. Acquisition of Animals V. Experimental Procedures VI. Field Research VII. Educational Use of Animals

7 Part II Foundations of Research Chapter 5 Measurement Techniques and Sampling Methods Defining Measurement Scales of Measurement Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale Interval Scale Ratio Scale Psychometric Properties of Good Measurement Overview of Reliability and Validity Reliability TestRetest Reliability Equivalent-Forms Reliability Internal Consistency Reliability Interrater Reliability Validity Validity Evidence Based on Content Validity Evidence Based on Internal Validity Evidence Based on Relations to Other Variables Using Reliability and Validity Information Sources of Information About Tests Sampling Methods Terminology Used in Sampling Random Sampling Techniques Simple Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Random Sampling Systematic Sampling Nonrandom Sampling Techniques Random Selection and Random Assignment Determining the Sample Size When Random Sampling Is Used Sampling in Qualitative Research

8 Chapter 6 Ensuring Research Validity Overview of Four Major Types of Validity Statistical Conclusion Validity Construct Validity Threats to Construct Validity Participant Reactivity to the Experimental Situation Experimenter Effects Internal Validity Threats to Internal Validity History Maturation Instrumentation Testing Regression Artifact Attrition Selection Additive and Interactive Effects Table of Contents External Validity Population Validity Ecological Validity Temporal Validity Treatment Variation Validity Outcome Validity Relationship between Internal and External Validity Part IV Experimental Methods Chapter 7 Control Techniques in Experimental Research Control Techniques Carried Out at the Beginning Matching Matching by Holding Variables Constant Matching by Building the Extraneous

9 Matching by Yoked Control Matching by Equating Participants Control Techniques Carried Out During Counterbalancing Randomized Counterbalancing Intrasubject Counterbalancing Complete Counterbalancing Incomplete Counterbalancing Control of Participant Effects Double-Blind Placebo Method Deception Control of Participant Interpretation Control of Experimenter Effects Control of Recording Errors Control of Experimenter Attribute Errors Control of Experimenter Expectancy Error The Blind Technique The Partial Blind Technique Automation Likelihood of Achieving Control Chapter 8 Creating the Appropriate Research Design Weak Experimental Research Designs One-Group Posttest-Only Design One-Group PretestPosttest Design Posttest-Only Design with Nonequivalent Groups Strong Experimental Research Designs Between-Participants Designs Posttest-Only Control-Group Design Strengths and Weaknesses of the Posttest-Only Control-Group Design Within-Participants Designs Strengths and Weaknesses of Within-Participants Designs Mixed Designs (i.e., Combination of Between and Within) PretestPosttest Control-Group Design Advantages and Disadvantages of Including a Pretest

10 Factorial Designs Factorial Designs Based on within-subjects independent variables Factorial Designs Based on a Mixed Model Strengths and Weaknesses of Factorial Designs How To Choose or Construct the Appropriate Experimental Design Chapter 9 Procedure for Conducting an Experiment Institutional Approval Research Participants Obtaining Animals (Rats) Obtaining Human Participants Sample Size Power Apparatus and/or Instruments Procedure Scheduling of Research Participants Consent to Participate Instructions Data Collection Debriefing, or Postexperimental Interview Debriefing Functions How to Debrief Pilot Study Related Internet Site Challenge Exercise Chapter 10 Creating a Quasi-Experimental Design Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design Outcomes with Rival Hypotheses Outcome I: Increasing Control and Experimental Groups

11 Outcome II:Experimental-Group-Higher-than-Control-Group-at-Pretest Effect Outcome III: Experimental-Group-Lower-than-Control-Group-at-Pretest Effect Outcome IV: Crossover Effect Ruling out Threats to the Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design Causal Inference from the Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design Time-Series Design Interrupted Time-Series Design Regression Discontinuity Design Chapter 11 Creating a Single-Case Design History of Single-Case Designs Single-Case Designs ABA and ABAB Designs Interaction Design Multiple-Baseline Design Changing-Criterion Design Methodological Considerations in Using Single-Case Designs Baseline Changing One Variable at a Time Length of Phases Criteria for Evaluating Change Experimental Criterion Therapeutic Criterion Rival Hypotheses Part V Survey, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods Research Chapter 12 The Survey as Non-Experimental Research When Should One Conduct Survey Research? Steps in Survey Research

12 Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Designs Selecting a Survey Data Collection Method Constructing and Refining a Survey Instrument Principle 1. Write Items to Match the Research Objectives Principle 2. Write Items That Are Appropriate for the Respondents to be Surveyed Principle 3. Write Short, Simple Questions Principle 4. Avoid Loaded or Leading Questions Principle 5. Avoid Double-Barreled Questions Principle 6. Avoid Double Negatives Principle 7. Determine whether Closed-Ended and/or Open-Ended Questions Are Needed Principle 8. Construct Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive Response Categories for Closed-Ended Questions Principle 9. Consider the Different Types of Closed-Ended Response Categories Rating Scales Binary Forced Choice Rankings Checklists Principle 10. Use Multiple Items to Measure Complex or Abstract Constructs Semantic Differential Likert Scaling Principle 11. Make Sure the Questionnaire Is Easy to Use From the Beginning to the End Ordering of Questions Contingency Questions Questionnaire Length Response Bias Principle 12. Pilot Test the Questionnaire Until It Is Perfected Selecting Your Survey Sample From the Population Preparing and Analyzing Your Survey Data Chapter 13 Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research Major Characteristics of Qualitative Research Research Validity in Qualitative Research Descriptive Validity Interpretive Validity Theoretical Validity

13 Internal Validity External Validity Four Major Qualitative Research Methods Phenomenology Phenomenological Data Collection and Data Analysis Phenomenological Report Writing Ethnography Ethnographic Data Collection Methods Entry, Group Acceptance, and Fieldwork Data Analysis and Report Writing Case Study Research Data Collection in Case Study Research Case Study Designs Case Study Data Analysis and Report Writing Grounded Theory Data Collection in Grounded Theory Research Grounded Theory Data Analysis and Report Writing Mixed Methods Research Research Validity In Mixed Methods Research Mixed Methods Designs Part V I Analyzing and Interpreting Data Chapter 14 Summarizing Research Data-Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics Frequency Distributions Graphic Representations of Data Bar Graphs Histograms Line Graphs Scatterplots Measures of Central Tendency Mode Median

14 Mean Measures of Variability Range Variance and Standard Deviation Standard Deviation and the Normal Curve Z-scores Examining Relationships Among Variables Unstandardized and Standardized Difference Between Group Means Correlation Coefficient Partial Correlation Coefficient Regression Analysis Contingency Tables Chapter 15 Using Inferential Statistics Sampling Distributions Estimation Hypothesis Testing Directional Alternative Hypotheses Review of the Logic of Hypothesis Testing Hypothesis-Testing Errors Hypothesis Testing in Practice The t Test for Correlation Coefficients One-Way Analysis of Variance Post Hoc Tests in Analysis of Variance Analysis of Covariance Two-Way Analysis of Variance One-Way Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance The t Test for Regression Coefficients Chi-Square Test for Contingency Tables Other Significance Tests Hypothesis Testing and Research Design

15 Part V II Writing the Research Report Chapter 16 Preparing and Publishing the Research Report The APA Format Preparation of the Research Report Writing Style Language Specificity Labels Participation Specific Issues Editorial Style Italics Abbreviations Headings Quotations Numbers Physical Measurements Presentation of Statistical Results Tables Figures Figure Legends and Caption Figure Preparation Reference Citations Reference List Preparation of the Manuscript for Submission Ordering of Manuscript Pages Submission of the Research Report for Publication Acceptance of the Manuscript Presenting Research Results at Professional Conferences Oral Presentation Poster Presentation Appendix Glossary A B

16 C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y Z References Index

RESEARCH METHODS. A Process of Inquiry. tm HarperCollinsPublishers ANTHONY M. GRAZIANO MICHAEL L RAULIN

RESEARCH METHODS. A Process of Inquiry. tm HarperCollinsPublishers ANTHONY M. GRAZIANO MICHAEL L RAULIN RESEARCH METHODS A Process of Inquiry ANTHONY M. GRAZIANO MICHAEL L RAULIN STA TE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK A T BUFFALO tm HarperCollinsPublishers CONTENTS Instructor's Preface xv Student's Preface xix 1