EDS 103 Module 3.1 BEHAVIORISM

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1 9/26/2015 EDS 103 Module 3.1 BEHAVIORISM EDS 103 Module 3.1 BEHAVIORISM BEHAVIORISM Site: University of the Philippines Open University: Course: EDS_103_1T_ Theories of Learning Book: EDS 103 Module 3.1 BEHAVIORISM Printed by: [T. Malou] Marilou Juachon Date: Saturday, 26 September 2015, 6:38 PM 1/44

2 9/26/2015 EDS 103 Module 3.1 BEHAVIORISM Table of contents 1 3 BEHAVIORISM 2 What is behaviorism? 3 What is classical conditioning? (Pavlov) 3.1 What are conditioned emotional reactions/responses? 4 What is operant conditioning (instrumental or Skinnerian conditioning)? 5 What is the stimulus- response (S- R) theory connectionism? (Thorndike) 6 REFERENCES 2/44

3 1 BEHAVIORISM - What basic assumptions underlie behavioral theories? - How are teaching and learning practices influenced by behavioral theories? - - How might behavioral theories be able to help us understand some students' emotional responses to learning events? - - In what are ways might behavioral principles be used to manage behaviors or promote learning? - What are the strengths and limitations of behaviorist approaches? Behaviorists define learning as the relatively permanent change in behavior as a consequence of experience or practice, and the term learning theory is often associated with the behavioral view (Huitt & Hummel, 2006). Likewise, it may be noted how most schools of thought encourage learning objectives to be stated using verbs that are observable and measurable. <Publicly observable, even measurable otherwise, it will of no interest to the behaviorist.> To date, it is common practice to use publicly observable and measurable behaviors as a basic criterion for what constitutes good learning objectives for lesson plans. Thus, mental processes, being unobservable, are not appropriate descriptions of learning objectives. (See Writing Behavioral Objectives LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this section of the module, you should be able to: - discuss the basic assumptions that underlie the four major learning theories behavioral, social, constructivist, and cognitive; - propose theoretically principled explanations for the way students respond to learning events; - use core concepts of learning theories to analyze teaching- learning events and predict learning outcomes; - propose theoretically justified approaches to improve pedagogy. 3/44

4 2 What is behaviorism? All behaviors are mere responses to the environment and can always be traced to some physical or external cause. Study: Behaviorism (Learning- Theories.com, 2014) ( theories.com/behaviorism.html) - operates on principle of stimulus- response - all cause by external stimuli (operant conditioning) - all behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness BEHAVIORISM - assumes that learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli - learner starts off as a clean state (tabula rasa) and behavior is shaped through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT/ NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - increase the probability that the antecedent behavior will happen again. - Positive indication application of stimulus - Negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus Learning is a change in behavior in the learner Punishment - decreases the likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen again. 4/44

5 What is Behaviorism? (Kendra Cherry, 2005) ( ) BEHAVIORISM - founded by John B. Watson - also known as behavioral psychology a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. BEHAVIOR - behavior is an activity of what we do (conative activities) (ex. Swimming) or what we feel (cognitive activities) (thinking, reasoning) (S.K. Mangal, 2007) - behavior can be studied in systematic and observable manner with no consideration that of internal mental states. (- internal states such as cognitions, emotions and moods are too subjective.) - behavior can be measured, trained and changed. - strict behaviorists believe that any person could potentially be trained to perform any task, regardless of things like genetic background, personality traits, and internal thoughts (within the limits of their physical capabilities). All it takes is the right conditioning. - behavior as the result of conditioning. STRENGTHS OF BEHAVIORISM - Behaviorism is based on observable behaviors, so it is easier to quantify and collect data and information when conducting research. - Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioral intervention, behavior analysis, token economies, and discrete trial training are all rooted in behaviorism. These approaches are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and adults. CONDITIONING - occurs through interaction with the environment. - Behaviorist believed that our responses to environment stimuli shape our actions. - Behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states 5/44

6 TYPES OF CONDITIONING 1. Classical Conditioning 2. Operant Conditioning 1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. - a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. - a previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. - two elements are CONDITIONED STIMULUS & CONDITIONED RESPONSE 2. OPERANT CONDITIONING - sometimes refered to as INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING - a method in learning that occurs through reinforcement and punishments for behavior. - an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior - when a desirable result follows an action, the behavior becomes more like to occur again in the future. - when responses followed by adverse outcomes, it becomes less likely to happen again in the future. Behaviorist Approach (Saul McLeod, 200; 2013) ( BEHAVIORIST APPROACH - purely objective experimental branch of natural science - theoretical goal is prediction and control - concerned with observable behavior, which can be objectively and scientifically measured (external events) - internal events ex. thinking should be explained through behavioral terms - when born our mind is tabula rasa (blank state) - people have no free will person s environment determines their behavior - behavior is the result of stimulus- response - all behavior is learnt from environment (conditioning) 6/44

7 THE HISTORY OF BEHAVIORISM - Pavlov (1897) published the results of an experiment on conditioning after originally studying digestion in dogs. - Watson (1913) launches the behavioral school of psychology (classical conditioning), publishing an article, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It". - Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned an orphan called Albert B (aka Little Albert) to fear a white rat. - Thorndike (1905) formalized the "Law of Effect". - Skinner (1936) wrote "The Behavior of Organisms" and introduced the concepts of operant conditioning and shaping. - Clark Hull s (1943) Principles of Behavior was published. - B.F. Skinner (1948) published Walden Two, in which he described a utopian society founded upon behaviorist principles. - Bandura (1963) publishes a book called the "Social Leaning Theory and Personality development" which combines both cognitive and behavioral frameworks. - Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavio r (begun in 1958). - B.F. Skinner (1971) published his book, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, where he argues that free will is an illusion. Behaviorism (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy) ( (TF) 7/44

8 Guide Questions: Define behaviorism. What are the general tenets (beliefs, assumptions, principles) that undergird behaviorist theories of learning? What are the strengths and weaknesses of behaviorism? Weakness - - relying on their own subjective interpretations. Briefly state the major contribution of each of the following theorists to behaviorism: Ivan Pavlov B. F. Skinner Edward Thorndike John B. Watson Clark Hull Ivan Pavlov ( - made scientific and objective approaches to the study of learning, mainly because it provided a model that could be verified, tested and explored in several ways, using the methodology developed for physiology. CONDITIONED REFLEX - originates from cerebral cortex - prime distributer and organizer of the organism CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY - Pavlov introduced learned response. (conditioned stimulus) UNCONDITIONAL BEHAVIOR - occur naturally, they are built in. B. F. Skinner ( - Operant Conditioning - Schedules of Reinforcement - Skinner Box - Cumulative Recorder - Radical Behaviorism the concept of free will was simply an illusion. - The consequence of behavior determine the probability that the behavior will occur again. - All human action was direct result of conditioning 8/44

9 OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY - Actions followed by good consequences are reinforced and more like to occur again in the future. - Behaviors result in negative consequences become less likely to occur again. - reinforcement as any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT - favorable outcomes such as reward or praise NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - removal of unfavorable outcomes SKINNER BOX - operant conditioning apparatus that contained a bar or key that an animal could press in order to receive food, water or some other form of reinforcement CUMULATIVE RECORDER - device that recorded responses as a sloped line which indicate the rate of response. Ex. Rates dependent upon what happened after the animal pressed the bar. PUNISHMENT - application of an adverse outcome that decreases or weakens the behaviors it follows. POSITIVE PUNISHMENT - presenting an unfavorable outcome (prison, spanking, scolding) NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT - involves removing a favorable outcome following a behavior (taking away a favorite toy) SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: 1. Fixed- ratio schedules 2. Variable- ratio schedules 3. Fixed- interval schedules 4. Variable- interval schedules SKINNER TEACHING MACHINES - device that would shape behavior, offering incremental feedback until a desired response was achieved. - offered immediate feedback after each problem PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION - offered incremental feedback and presented material in a series of small steps until students acquired new skills. 9/44

10 Edward Thorndike ( thorndike.htm) LAW OF EFFECT - responses are immediately followed by a satisfactory outcome become more strongly associated with the situation and are therefore more like to occur again in the future. - responses followed by negative outcomes become more weakly associated and less likely to recoccur in the future John B. Watson ( BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION - used in therapy and behavioral training to help clients change problematic behaviors and develop new skills BEHAVIOR PLAN - systematic plan to reduce problem behaviors or increase desired behaviors. - statement of the behavior targeted for change - statement of the short and long- term behavior goal - explanation of what the plan will include such as the roles of the teacher and instructional assistants. - details about positive and negative reinforcement that will be used - explanation of how the plan will be monitored and evaluated for effectiveness - used to reduce problem behaviors that may affect the student or others and cause disruption to the learning process in the classroom - increase positive behaviors necessary to interact appropriately and safely with adults and students and promote learning and academic skills. INTROSPECTION (rejected introspection theory) - describe both an informal reflection process and a more formalized experimental approach. - Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upo the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness 10/44

11 Clarke Hull ( hull.htm) DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY - deprivation creates needs. - - this needs activate drives which then motivate behavior the resulting behavior is goal directed, since achieving these goals aids in survival of organism. Learning occurred when reinforcement of behaviors resulted in meeting some type of survival need. Behavior is the result of the continual and complex interaction of the organism and the environment. SOCIAL LEARNING AND IMITATION - motivating stimuli did not necessary need to be tied to the survival needs of an organism EMPHASIS ON EXPERIMENTAL METHODS - manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable - this method relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis 11/44

12 3 What is classical conditioning? (Pavlov) Classical conditioning theory explains learning via association i.e., learning to instinctively respond to stimulus evoked by another stimulus. Guide Questions: a.) Identify the basic principles of classical conditioning and cite examples from your personal learning experiences to elucidate. b.) Describe (compare and contrast) the two types of stimuli and the two types of responses in classical conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned Response (UCR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR) c.) What is a neutral stimulus? How is it different from a conditioned stimulus and a unconditioned stimulus? d.) Describe the classical conditioning process. e.) Describe situations when classical conditioning may be used productively in the academic setting. Conversely, how might classical conditioning adversely influence learning? 12/44

13 Introduction to Classical Conditioning: How It Works and a Few Examples In Action; ( - a learning process that occurs through association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. BEHAVIORISM - based on the assumption that learning occurs through interactions with the environment. - basically involves forming an association between two stimuli resulting in a learned response. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - involves placing a neutral signal before a naturally occurring reflex. ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 1. Initial establishment of the response 2. Disappearance of a response CLASSICAL CONDITIONING ASSUMPTIONS - environment shapes behavior - taking internal mental states such as thoughts, feelings, and emotions into consideration is useless in explaining behavior. 3 BASIC PHASES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - PHASE 1 BEFORE CONDITIONING - The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - The Unconditioned Response (UCR) - PHASE 2 DURING CONDITIONING - Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - PHASE 3 AFTER CONDITIONING - Conditioned Response (CR) 13/44

14 - PHASE 1 BEFORE CONDITIONING The first part of this process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will automatically elicit a response. - The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - - one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response ex. when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus. - The Unconditioned Response (UCR) - - is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus ex.the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response. - PHASE 2 DURING CONDITIONING The previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an association between the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed. At this point the neutral stimulus become known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). - Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - - previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response ex. suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus. - PHASE 3 AFTER CONDITIONING Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting the conditioned stimulus alone will come to evoke a response even in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. The resulting response is known as the conditioned response (CR). - Conditioned Response (CR) - - is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus ex. the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle. 14/44

15 Principles of Classical Conditioning (Kendra Cherry, 2005) ( ACQUISITION - the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened. EXTINCTION - when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus. SPONTENEOUS RECOVERY - reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response. - If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery. STIMULUS GENERALIZATION - the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. DISCRIMINATION - the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus - response is limited to specific stimuli Classical Conditioning (Learning- Theories.com, 2014) ( theories.com/classical- conditioning- pavlov.html) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - reflexive or automatic type of learning in which stimulus evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. ASSOCIATIVE TYPE OF LEARNING - making a new association between events in the environment 2 FORMS OF ASSOCIATIVE TYPE OF LEARNING 1. Classical Conditioning 2. Operant Conditioning 15/44

16 3.1 What are conditioned emotional reactions/responses? Guide Questions: a. Describe conditioned emotional response/reaction (CER). b. What are the implications of conditioned emotional responses/reactions (CER) in school settings? Conditioned Emotional Reactions [pdf] by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner(1920) ( CLASSROOM APPLICATION OF EMOTIONAL CONDITIONING "Principles of classical conditioning are relevant to some dysfunctional behaviors. Children entering kindergarten or first grade may possess fears related to the new experiences. At the beginning of the school year, primary teachers might develop procedures to desensitize some of the children s fears. Visitation sessions give students the opportunity to meet their teacher and other students and to see their classroom and the seat with their name on it. On the first few days of school, the teacher might plan fun but relatively calm activities involving students getting to know their teacher, classmates, room, and school building. Students could tour the building, return to their room, and draw pictures. They might talk about what they saw. Students can be taken to offices to meet the principal, assistant principal, nurse, and counselor. They also could play name games in which they introduce themselves and then try to recall names of classmates. "These activities represent an informal desensitization procedure. For some children, cues associated with the school serve as stimuli eliciting anxiety. The fun activities elicit pleasurable feelings, which are incompatible with anxiety. Pairing fun activities with cues associated with school may cause the latter to become less anxiety producing. "Some education students may be anxious about teaching complete lessons to an entire class. Anxieties should be lessened when students spend time in classrooms and gradually assume more responsibility for instruction. Pairing classroom and teaching experiences with formal study can desensitize fears related to being responsible for children s learning. "Some drama students have extreme problems with stage fright. Drama teachers may work with students to lessen these anxieties by practicing more on the actual stage and by opening up rehearsals to allow others to watch. Exposure to performing in front of others should help diminish some of the fears." SOURCE: Schunk (2012), p /44

17 "Classical conditioning can be involved in both positive and negative experiences of children in the classroom. Among the things in the child s schooling that produce pleasure because they have become classically conditioned are a favorite song and feelings that the classroom is a safe and fun place to be. For example, a song could be neutral for the child until he joins in with other classmates to sing it with accompanying positive feelings. "Children can develop fear of the classroom if they associate the classroom with criticism, so the criticism becomes a CS for fear. Classical conditioning also can be involved in test anxiety. For example, a child fails and is criticized, which produces anxiety; thereafter, she associates tests with anxiety, so they then can become a CS for anxiety." SOURCE: Santrock (2011, pp ) The Little Albert Experiment [YouTube video] ( ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IIN THE LITTLE ALBERT EXPERIMENT - the Little Albert experiment presents and example of how classical conditioning can be used to condition an emotional response. Neutral Stimulus: The white rat Unconditioned Stimulus: The loud noise Unconditioned Response: Fear Conditioned Stimulus: The white rat Conditioned Response: Fear PHENOMENON OF GENERALIZATION - After conditioning, Albert feared not just the white rat, but a wide variety of similar white objects as well. His fear included other furry objects including Raynor's fur coat and Watson wearing a Santa Claus beard. 17/44

18 4 What is operant conditioning (instrumental or Skinnerian conditioning)? The role of rewards and punishments in learning cannot be overemphasized. In this section, we study how this process works. Guide Questions: a.) Define the following terms; provide examples from your personal experiences to illustrate each: - Reinforcers versus punishment - Positive reinforcers versus negative reinforcers - Positive punishment versus negative punishment b.) How do reinforcement schedules work? Cite applications for classroom use. c.) Distinguish the two types of conditioning- - Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning. Elaborate with examples from your personal experiences. Introduction to Operant Conditioning ( - known as Instrumental Conditioning too - method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. - an association made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior It was not really necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain behavior but instead should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior. - Active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences" (1953). - how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day. - actions that are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. - actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be weakened and less likely to occur again in the futur 18/44

19 Reinforcement Schedules and How They Work by Kendra Cherry (2005) ( e=zergnet&utm_medium=tcg_internal&utm_campaign=zergnet- InternalHero) - rule stating which instances of a behavior will be reinforced. - a behavior might be reinforced every time it occurs - behavior might not be reinforced at all - the goal of reinforcement is always to strengthen the behavior and increase the likelihood that it will occur again in the future. 1. CONTINOUS REINFORCEMENT - the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. This schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response. - Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule. 2.PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT - the response is reinforced only part of the time. - Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction. There are four schedules of partial reinforcement: 1. Fixed- ratio schedules - Reinforcing a behavior after a specific number of responses have occurred. - are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. - This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer. - An example of a fixed- ratio schedule would be delivering a food pellet to a rat after it presses a bar five times. 2. Variable- ratio schedules - Reinforcing the behavior after an unpredictable number of responses. - occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. - This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule. - In a lab setting, this might involved delivering food pellets to a rat after one bar press, again after four bar presses, and a third pellet after two bar presses. 19/44

20 3. Fixed- interval schedules - Reinforcing a behavior after a specific period of time has elapsed. - are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. - This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer. - An example of this in a lab setting would be reinforcing a rat with a lab pellet for the first bar press after a 30 second interval has elapsed. 4. Variable- interval schedules - Reinforcing the behavior after an unpredictable period of time has elapsed. - occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. - This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response. - An example of this would be delivering a food pellet to a rat after the first bar press following a one minute interval, another pellet for the first response following a five minute interval, and a third food pellet for the first response following a three minute interval. Classical Conditioning (Learning- Theories.com, 2014) ( theories.com/operant- conditioning- skinner.html) - A behaviorist theory based on the fundamental idea that behaviors that are reinforced will tend to continue while behaviors that are punished will eventually end. - Keywords response- stimulus, voluntary response, reinforcer OPERANT CONDITIONING - can be described as a process that attempts to modify behavior through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. - it makes an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence 20/44

21 5 What is the stimulus- response (S- R) theory connectionism? (Thorndike) The development of Skinner's theory of operant conditioning may be traced to the stimulus- response theory proposed by Edward Thorndike. His experiments with cats in a puzzle box may be counted among the classics in behaviorist studies. Thorndike s S- R theory explains how habits are developed or diminished. Guide Questions: a.) What principles underlie S- R theory? b.) Describe the three laws in Thorndike s theory. Cite examples; what are the implications for learning? c.) Distinguish: classical conditioning, operant conditioning and connectionism. Edward Thorndike. (SimplyPsychology.org) ( thorndike.html) LAW OF EFFECT - any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped Connectionism Theory (elearning Industry) ( CONNECTIONISM THEORY - based on Active Learning Principles - based on ideas presented by associationism. - Thorndike hypothesized that certain elements become associated though a similar experience and that more complex ideas can be taught or explained through a series of simplified rules. Learning is achieved when an individual is able to form associations between a particular stimulus and a response. 21/44

22 FOUR KEY PRINCIPLES OF CONNECTIONISM THEORY 1. Learning involves both practice and a reward system (based upon the law of effect). 2. Stimulus and response associations can be linked if they are part of the same action sequence (based upon the law of readiness). 3. The transfer of knowledge and learning is based on situations that have been previously experienced by the individual. 4. Intelligence is determined by how many of these associations have been learned and/or acquired 1. LAW OF EFFECT - individual s response to a specific situation followed by a reward will eventually make those responses stronger. - therefore, the responses become habits when the individual is presented with that particular situation again. - additionally, if a response deters an individual from achieving a reward, or a rewarding state, then this response becomes weaker. HABITS - can either be encouraged or deterred by external parameters and the frequency an individual is exposed to the stimulus and the response. Thondike's Laws highlight the importance of rewards and emphasize on the necessity of practice and repetition. 2. LAW OF READINESS - A series or a set of responses can be linked together in order to achieve a goal. If the person is prevented from achieving this goal, this will cause annoyance. Law of Readiness suggests that a teacher can only instruct a student if that student is willing to be educated. - When a student does not show any signs of readiness, a teacher should provide instructions that will help the student develop. 3. LAW OF EXERCISE - Frequently made associations become strengthened. Likewise, rare or sporadic associations become weaker. 22/44

23 ADDITIONAL THORNDIKE S LEARNING THEORY: 1. Multiple responses - In any given situation, an individual might react in a variety of ways if the initial reaction does not immediately lead to a satisfying result. 2. Set of attitudes - Individuals are inclined to react in a particular way. These reactions are unique for species or groups of related species. 3. Prepotency of elements - Individuals are able to filter out any irrelevant aspects of a particular situation and respond only to significant parameters that directly affect this situation. 4. Response by analogy - Reactions from a previously experienced situation might be transferred to a new one. This is also called Theory of Identical Elements. 5. Associative shifting - Sometimes, a reaction to a certain stimulus might shift to a different one. Thorndike - Law of Effect (YouTube video) ( LAW OF EFFECT Behavior changes because of consequences Analyzing Thorndike s Law Of Effect (Nevin, 1999) Cognitive versus stimulus- response theories of learning ( f) - The stimulus response bond postulated by Thorndike s (1911) law of effect is not required in a functional account of behavior in relation to its consequences. - Moreover, the notion of a bond has been challenged by the findings of several experiments. - Nevertheless, it remains viable in the light of reanalyses of those findings. Thorndike s suggestion that the strength of the bond depends on the magnitude of satisfaction is consistent with current research on resistance to change. Key words: law of effect, S- R bond, reinforcer devaluation, resistance to change 23/44

24 Teacher Malou s Notes: [The] frequency of S- R and contiguity of S- R are important, but the consequences of a response are too.- - Paul, 2012 Thorndike s Theory "Thorndike, inspired by Pavlov, viewed most behaviors as physical reflexive responses to environmental stimuli, thus the beginnings of the S- R (stimulus- response) theory. This view posits that some behaviors occur on account of environmental stimuli rather than conscious thoughts. Thorndike extended Pavlov s theory by showing that stimuli that occurred after a behavior had an influence on future behaviors. He examined voluntary, rather than reflexive (involuntary) reactions and argued that connections are made between specific stimuli and specific voluntary behaviors. From this perspective, behavior is considered self- directed or voluntary rather than reflexive or involuntary" (Slavin, 2006; Paul, 2012). Trial- and- error Learning ( Selecting and Connecting ) "Thorndike believed that trial and error- - selecting and connecting accounts for most learning. Connections are mechanically formed through repetition, a process that does not necessarily invoke conscious awareness. Through trial and error, learning occurs by making mistakes until a correct solution is found in the absence of teaching, modeling, or guidance. Learning through trial- and- error is a gradual progression, via the repetition of successful trials and the abandonment of unsuccessful ones"(paul, 2012; Schunk, 2012; Slavin, ). 24/44

25 Thorndike s Three Laws 1. Law of Readiness: Behaviors that produce "satisfaction" occur due to readiness; behaviors that produce "annoyance" occur: In other words, playing is fun when you feel that it is playtime! Less fun when you know you need to do other things. Annoying when you have time but are not allowed. (Paul, 2012) 2. Law of Exercise: The more often behavior (followed by satisfaction) occurs, the more likely the behavior will reoccur. [Later abandoned as inaccurate.] (Paul, 2012.) The Law of Exercise has two parts: The Law of Use a response to a stimulus strengthens their connection. The Law of Disuse when a response is not made to a stimulus, the connection s strength is weakened (forgotten). The longer the time interval before a response is made, the greater is the decline in the connection s strength (Schunk, 2012, p. 74). 3. Law of Effect: Actions closely followed by satisfaction become firmly attached to the situation and therefore, such actions or behaviors will more likely to reoccur in similar situations. Conversely, if the subsequent change that follows a behavior is unsatisfying [punishing], the behavior response will less likely occur when the situation repeats. [Thus,] the consequences of one's present behavior strongly determine one's future behavior in similar situations. 3- step guideline FOR Behavior Modification in the Classroom SOURCES: Cherry, 2012; Schunk, 2012; Slavin, 2006; Paul, Decide what behaviors you want from students; reinforce these behaviors when they occur. 2. Tell students what behaviors you want; when they exhibit the behaviors and you reinforce them, tell them why. 3. Reinforce behaviors as soon as possible after it occurs. 25/44

26 Principles for Using Behavior Modification ( Huitt, W. (1994). Principles for using behavior modification. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [date], from TO DEVELOP A NEW BEHAVIOR: 1. Successive Approximation Principle: To teach a child to act in a manner in which he has seldom or never before behaved, reward successive steps to the final behavior. 2. Continuous Reinforcement Principle: To develop a new behavior that the child has not previously exhibited, arrange for an immediate reward after each correct performance. 3. Negative Reinforcement Principle: To increase a child's performance in a particular way, you may arrange for him to avoid or escape a mild aversive situation by improving his behavior or by allowing him to avoid the aversive situation by behaving appropriately. 4. Modeling Principle: To teach a child new ways of behaving, allow him to observe a prestigiously person performing the desired behavior. 5. Cueing Principle: To teach a child to remember to act at a specific time, arrange for him to receive a cue for the correct performance just before the action is expected rather than after he has performed it incorrectly. 6. Discrimination Principle: To teach a child to act in a particular way under one set of circumstances but not in another, help him to identify the cues that differentiate the circumstances and reward him only when his action is appropriate to the cue. TO STRENGTHEN A NEW BEHAVIOR: 7. Decreasing Reinforcement Principle: To encourage a child to continue performing an established behavior with few or no rewards, gradually require a longer time period or more correct responses before a correct behavior is rewarded. 26/44

27 8. Variable Reinforcement Principle: To improve or increase a child's performance of a certain activity, provide the child with an intermittent reward. TO MAINTAIN AN ESTABLISHED BEHAVIOR: 9. Substitution Principle: To change reinforcers when a previously effective reward is no longer controlling behavior, present it just before (or as soon as possible to) the time you present the new, hopefully more effective reward. TO STOP INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR: 10. Satiation Principle: To stop a child from acting in a particular way, you may allow him to continue (or insist that he continue) performing the undesired act until he tires of it. 11. Extinction Principle: To stop a child from acting in a particular way, you may arrange conditions so that he receives no rewards following the undesired act. 12. Incompatible Alternative Principle: To stop a child from acting in a particular way, you may reward an alternative action that is inconsistent with or cannot be performed at the same time as the undesired act. 13. Punishment Principle: To stop a child from acting in a certain way, deliver an aversive stimuli immediately after the action occurs. Since punishment results in increased hostility and aggression, it should only be used infrequently and in conjunction with reinforcement. TO MODIFY EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR: 14. Avoidance Principle: To teach a child to avoid a certain type of situation, simultaneously present to the child the situation to be avoided (or some representation of it) and some aversive condition (or its representation). 15. Fear Reduction Principle: To help a child overcome his fear of a particular situation, gradually increase his exposure to the feared situation while he is otherwise comfortable, relaxed, and secure or rewarded. 27/44

28 An Overview to the Behavioral Perspective ( Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2006). An overview of the behavioral perspective. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [date], from Overview According to the behaviorists, learning can be defined as the relatively permanent change in behavior brought about as a result of experience or practice. [Note: an internal event displayed by overt behavior; contrasted with biological maturation or genetics as an explanation for relatively permanent change.] In fact, the term "learning theory" is often associated with the behavioral view. Researchers who affiliate with this position do not generally look with favor on the term "behavior potential" (i.e., may be capable of performing but did not for some reason such as illness, situation, etc.) that was included in a definition accepted by those with a cognitive or humanistic viewpoint. The focus of the behavioral approach is on how the environment impacts overt behavior. The psychomotor domain is associated with overt behavior when writing instructional objectives. Cunia (2005) provides an excellent overview of the behavioral approach applied to learning. Behavior analysis is the term used to describe the scientific study of behavior and behavior modification is the term used to describe the application of behavior analysis concepts and principles for the systematic or programatic changing of behavior. As we discuss the behavioral approach, for the most part we will assume that the mind is a "black box" that we cannot see into. The only way we know what is going on in the mind, according to most behaviorists, is to look at overt behavior. The feedback loop that connects overt behavior to stimuli that activate the senses has been studied extensively from this perspective. There are three types of behaviorial learning theories: 1. Contiguity - - any stimulus and response connected in time and/or space will tend to be associated (a baseball player wearing a certain pair of socks on the day he hits three home runs; a student making a good grade on a test after trying several different study techniques) ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY: 1. stimulus = environmental event 2. response = action = behavior = overt behavior 28/44

29 2. Classical (Respondent) Conditioning - - association of stimuli (an antecedent stimulus will reflexively elicit an innate emotional or physiological response; another stimulus will elicit an orienting response) ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY: 1. conditioning = learning 2. antecedent = a stimulus occuring "before" a response 3. reflexive = involuntary (e.g., involuntary responses cannot be consciously stopped once they start) 4. innate = inborn 5. elicits = causes (to bring forth) 3. Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning - - connection of emitted behavior and its consequences (reinforcement and punishment) ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY: 1. emitted = voluntary (e.g., voluntary responses can be consciously stopped) 2. consequent or consequences = a stimulus occuring "after" a response that changes the probability the response will occur again Note: Observational (Social) learning (learning through observing and modeling) is sometimes considered a behavioral learning theory but is covered with social cognition in these pages Additional Terminology: There are several terms associated with the behavioral approach that deserve further explanation. Extinction - - the breaking of the stimulus- stimulus or stimulus- response connection 1. contiguity theory - - if the stimulus is no longer paired with the response, the association will be discontinued. 2. classical conditioning - - if the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented by itself (without pairing with the unconditioned stimulus [US]) the conditioning / association process is reversed, and the CS will become an NS. 3.operant conditioning - - if the response is no longer followed by a consequence (it is not reinforced or punished), it will cease to be emitted. 4. social learning theory - - if the observed response is no longer followed by a consequence (it is not reinforced or punished), or if the model begins to display an incompatible behavior, the response will cease to be emitted. 29/44

30 Spontaneous recovery: Sometimes, after extinction in classical conditioning, if the conditioned stimulus (CS) is again presented, it will "spontaneously" elicit the conditioned response (CR). Higher (or second) order conditioning: Classical conditioning does not have to involve pairing an neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulu (US). If an NS is paired with an existing conditioned stimulus (CS), the NS will also become a CS. Stimulus generalization and discrimination - generalization - - behaviors learned in one context or situation are transfered to another (e.g., studying hard in Ed Psyc is transfered to studying hard in other classes) - discrimination - - behaviors reward or punished in one context or situation have a different contingency in another (e.g., spending 5 hours per week in most courses is OK, but must spend 10 hours per week in Ed Psyc) References Cunia, E. (2005). Behavioral learning theory. Principles of Instruction and Learning: A Web Quest. Retrieved April 2006, from /44

31 An Introduction to Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning ( Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1997). An introduction to operant (instrumental) conditioning. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [date] from, A human being fashions his consequences as surely as he fashions his goods or his dwelling. Nothing that he says, thinks or does is without consequences. - Norman Cousins, 20 th century editor and author The major theorists for the development of operant conditioning are Edward Thorndike, John Watson, and B. F. Skinner. This approach to behaviorism played a major role in the development of the science of psychology, especially in the United States. They proposed that learning is the result of the application of consequences; that is, learners begin to connect certain responses with certain stimuli. This connection causes the probability of the response to change (i.e., learning occurs.) Thorndike labeled this type of learning instrumental. Using consequences, he taught kittens to manipulate a latch (e.g., an instrument). Skinner renamed instrumental as operant because it is more descriptive (i.e., in this learning, one is "operating" on, and is influenced by, the environment). Where classical conditioning illustrates S- - >R learning, operant conditioning is often viewed as R- - >S learning since it is the consequence that follows the response that influences whether the response is likely or unlikely to occur again. It is through operant conditioning that voluntary responses are learned. The 3- term model of operant conditioning (S- - > R - - >S) incorporates the concept that responses cannot occur without an environmental event (e.g., an antecedent stimulus) preceding it. While the antecedent stimulus in operant conditioning does not elicit or cause the response (as it does in classical), it can influence it. When the antecedent does influence the likelihood of a response occurring, it is technically called a discriminative stimulus. It is the stimulus that follows a voluntary response (i.e., the response's consequence) that changes the probability of whether the response is likely or unlikely to occur again. There are two types of consequences: positive (sometimes called pleasant) and negative (sometimes called aversive). These can be added to or taken away from the environment in order to change the probability of a given response occurring again. 31/44

32 General Principles There are 4 major techniques or methods used in operant conditioning. They result from combining the two major purposes of operant conditioning (increasing or decreasing the probability that a specific behavior will occur in the future), the types of stimuli used (positive/pleasant or negative/aversive), and the action taken (adding or removing the stimulus). Outcome of Conditioning Increase Behavior Decrease Behavior Positive Stimulus Negative Stimulus Positive Reinforcement (add stimulus) Negative Reinforcement (remove stimulus) Response Cost (remove stimulus) Punishment (add stimulus) Schedules of consequences Stimuli are presented in the environment according to a schedule of which there are two basic categories: continuous and intermittent. Continuous reinforcement simply means that the behavior is followed by a consequence each time it occurs. Intermittent schedules are based either on the passage of time (interval schedules) or the number of correct responses emitted (ratio schedules). The consequence can be delivered based on the same amount of passage of time or the same number of correct responses (fixed) or it could be based on a slightly different amount of time or number of correct responses that vary around a particular number (variable). This results in an four classes of intermittent schedules. [Note: Continuous reinforcement is actually a specific example of a fixed ratio schedule with only one response emitted before a consequence occurs.] 32/44

33 1. Fixed interval - - the first correct response after a set amount of time has passed is reinforced (i.e., a consequence is delivered). The time period required is always the same. Notice that in the context of positive reinforcement, this schedule produces a scalloping effect during learning (a dramatic dropoff of responding immediately after reinforcement.) Also notice the number of behaviors observed in a 30 minute time period. 2. Variable interval - - the first correct response after a set amount of time has passed is reinforced. After the reinforcement, a new time period (shorter or longer) is set with the average equaling a specific number over a sum total of trials. Notice that this schedule reduces the scalloping effect and the number of behaviors observed in the 30- minute time period is slightly increased. 33/44

34 3. Fixed ratio - - a reinforcer is given after a specified number of correct responses. This schedule is best for learning a new behavior Notice that behavior is relatively stable between reinforcements, with a slight delay after a reinforcement is given. Also notice the number of behaviors observed during the 30 minute time period is larger than that seen under either of the interval schedules. 4. Variable ratio - - a reinforcer is given after a set number of correct responses. After reinforcement the number of correct responses necessary for reinforcement changes. This schedule is best for maintaining behavior. Notice that the number of responses per time period increases as the schedule of reinforcement is changed from fixed interval to variable interval and from fixed ratio to variable ratio. 34/44

35 In summary, the schedules of consequences are often called schedules of reinforcements because there is only one schedule that is appropriate for administering response cost and punishment: continuous or fixed ratio of one. In fact, certainty of the application of a consequence is the most important aspect of using response cost and punishment. Learners must know, without a doubt, that an undesired or inappropriate target behavior will be followed by removal of a positive/pleasant stimulus or the addition of a negative/aversive stimulus. Using an intermittent schedule when one is attempting to reduce a behavior may actually lead to a strengthening of the behavior, certainly an unwanted end result. PREMACK PRINCIPLE The Premack Principle, often called "grandma's rule," states that a high frequency activity can be used to reinforce low frequency behavior. Access to the preferred activity is contingent on completing the low- frequency behavior. The high frequency behavior to use as a reinforcer can be determined by: 1. asking students what they would like to do; 2. observing students during their free time; or 3. determing what might be expected behavior for a particular age group. 35/44