GROUP PROCESS, GROUP DECISION, GROUP ACTION. Robert S. Baron and Norbert L Kerr

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1 GROUP PROCESS, GROUP DECISION, GROUP ACTION SECOND EDITION Robert S. Baron and Norbert L Kerr OPEN UNIVERSITY PRESS Buckingham Philadelphia

2 CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgements ONE TWO Introduction Key concepts Initial considerations The denning of a group Explaining human reliance on groups: some theoretical perspectives Conditioning and social companson theories Social identity and self-categorization theories Exchange theory Sociobiological theory Optimal distinctiveness theory Group characteristics Group norms Group size Group structure Group cohesion Leadership Stages Group entitativity Summary Suggestions for further reading Social facilitation Key concepts Background Drive theory and social facilitation Zajonc's mere presence hypothesis CottrelVs learned drive view

3 GROUP PROCESS, GROUP DECISION, GROUP ACTION Distraction/conflict (D/C) theory 25 Drive theory on trial 27 Self-based theories of social facilitation 29 Self-presentation theory 29 Self-efficacy theory 30 Attentional theories 31 Summary 34 Suggestions for further reading 34 Note 35 THREE Individual versus group performance 36 Key concepts 36 Introduction 36 Early research 37 Task, resources and potential: Steiner's model of group performance 38 The experimental analysis of process loss 43 Group member characteristics 43 Brainstorming 44 Group size and performance 47 Summary 49 Solution to the Husbands & Wives problem 50 Suggestions for further reading 50 FOUR Task motivation in groups 51 Key concepts 51 Introduction 51 Group motivation losses: social loafing 52 Identifiability-mediated motivation losses 53 Free riding 55 Inequity-based motivation losses 58 Group motivation gains 60 The Köhler effect 60 Social compensation 63 Summary 66 Suggestions for further reading 66 FIVE Social influence and conformity 68 Key concepts 68 Background 68 Social comparison theory 69 Ostracism 71 Conformity 73 Classic studies 73 The benefits of conformity 75 Conformity data 76 Recent research on conformity 78 Priming 78 Task importance 78 Group identification 79

4 CONTENTS Minority and majority influence 83 The afterimage study 84 Summing across studies 86 Variables affecting minority influence 86 The two-process model 87 Alternatives to conversion theory 89 Summary 91 Suggestions for further reading 91 SIX Extremity in groups 93 Key concepts 93 introduction 93 Groupthink 94 funis' initial model of groupthink 94 Laboratory research on groupthink 95 Historical case study reports of groupthink 96 Revised versions of groupthink 97 Avoiding groupthink 97 Group polarization 98 Early research on group polarization 98 Competitive social comparison and persuasive arguments 99 A self-categorization view of group polarization 100 Group polarization with real consequences 103 Biases in information sampling 104 Intense indoctrination 108 Mob action 111 Some causes of mob behaviour 111 Deindividuation research 113 Emergent norm theory 115 The ID model 117 Summary 118 Suggestions for further reading 119 SEVEN Social combination approaches to group decision-making 120 Key concepts 120 Introduction 120 Social combination approaches to group decision-making 122 Jury decision-making 125 fury size and decision rule 125 furies' leniency bias 127 An SDS analysis of group performance 129 Group versus individual susceptibility to judgmental biases 131 Complex group problem-solving: collective induction 133 Social communication and social combination: toward integration 135 Summary 136 Suggestions for further reading and viewing 137 Note 138 EIGHT Social dilemmas 139 Key concepts 139

5 GROUP PROCESS, CROUP DECISION, CROUP ACTION Background 139 The nature of social dilemmas 140 Cooperation in social dilemmas: motives and determinants 143 Dilemma features 144 Individual differences 146 Others' choices 147 Communication and commitment 149 Structural solutions to social dilemmas 150 Privatizing 150 Group size ISI Supplementary payoffs/costs 151 Changing the structure of the dilemma 152 Summary 153 Suggestions for further reading 154 NINE Intergroup conflict and aggression 155 Key concepts 155 Introduction 155 Intergroup conflict and aggression 155 Research on realistic conflict theory 156 Frustration, aggression and scapegoating 156 Perceived injustice 157 Triggering events 159 Generic sources of intergroup conflict: minimal groups research 160 Ingroup favoritism in minimal groups 160 Other perceptual and cognitive biases in intergroup relations 163 Outgroup homogeneity 163 The discontinuity effect and schema-based distrust of outgroups 164 Illusory correlation 164 Bargaining with the enemy: the canot vs. the stick 166 The ultimate attribution error 166 Reducing intergroup conflict and aggression 166 Intergroup contact: the contact hypothesis 167 Superordinate goals 168 Manipulating social categorization 169 Gradual and reciprocal concession technique 171 Summary 172 Suggestions for further reading 173 Note 173 TEN Stress and social support 175 Key concepts 175 Background 175 Affiliation research 176 Social support 178 The broken heart effect 179 Social support research 180 Explaining the relationship between social support and health 183 Control and self-esteem 183

6 CONTENTS Self-disclosure 183 Immune function 184 The buffering hypothesis 184 Can social support be harmful? 185 Matching theories of social support 186 Random assignment and social support research 187 Studies with healthy humans and primates 187 Research with patient populations 188 Social skills training 190 Summary 191 Suggestions for further reading 192 ELEVEN TWELVE Electronic groups 193 Key concepts 193 Background 193 Unique features of computer groups 194 Attenuation of information exchanged 194 Loss of non-verbal and paralinguistic information 194 Loss of status information 195 Computer-mediated communication and anonymity 197 Group cohesion and identity 197 Social corroboration, social support and loneliness 198 Electronic violence on and off the internet 199 Similarities between computer groups and face-to-face groups 200 Social facilitation in electronic groups 201 Social influence in electronic networks 201 Working with virtual partners 202 Summary 203 Suggestions for further reading and links 204 Concluding thoughts 205 Glossary 207 References 215 Index 260

Introduction to Social Psychology p. 1 Introduction p. 2 What Is Social Psychology? p. 3 A Formal Definition p. 3 Core Concerns of Social Psychology

Preface p. xv Introduction to Social Psychology p. 1 Introduction p. 2 What Is Social Psychology? p. 3 A Formal Definition p. 3 Core Concerns of Social Psychology p. 3 Sociology, Psychology, or Both? p.