Fatalism, Attributions of Failure and Academic Performance in Mapuche and Non-Mapuche Chilean Students

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1 , Copyight 2016: Sevicio de Publicaciones de la Univesidad de Mucia. Mucia (España) ISSN edición impesa: ISSN edición web ( Fatalism, Attibutions of Failue and Academic Pefomance in Mapuche and Non-Mapuche Chilean Students Tamaa Otzen 1,2,3*, Hécto Betancout 4,5, Maía-Elena González-Plitt 6 y Diana Matella 2 1 Doctoado en Ciencias Médicas, Univesidad de La Fontea (Chile). 2 Escuela de Psicología, Univesidad Autónoma de Chile (Chile). 3 Univesidad Científica del Su, Lima (Peú). 4 Loma Linda Univesity (United States). 5 Univesidad de La Fontea (Chile). 6 Viceectoa de Planificación y Desaollo, Univesidad de Los Lagos (Chile). Título: Fatalismo, atibuciones causales y endimiento académico en estudiantes chilenos mapuches y no mapuches. Resumen: Este estudio investiga el ol del fatalismo como oientación valóica cultual y las atibuciones causales sobe el facaso en el endimiento académico de estudiantes secundaios en la egión de La Aaucanía, Chile. Tes mil tescientos cuaenta y ocho estudiantes Mapuche y no-mapuche paticipaon en el estudio. De manea consistente con el modelo sobe cultua y compotamiento que guía la investigación, los esultados del análisis de modelos causales basado en ecuaciones estuctuales muesta que el endimiento académico es en pate una función de vaiaciones en el nivel de fatalismo, tanto diectamente como po medio de los pocesos de atibución causal y las emociones elacionadas al facaso. En téminos geneales, el modelo popuesto especto a la estuctua de las elaciones ente las vaiables fatalismo, atibuciones, y emociones elacionadas con el facaso como deteminantes del endimiento académico explican los datos tanto paa estudiantes Mapuche como No-Mapuche. Sin embago, los esultados muestan que la natualeza de las elaciones ente algunas de las vaiables del modelo es distinta paa estudiantes de estos dos gupos étnicos. Finalmente, de acuedo al análisis de modelos causales, el nivel socioeconómico de la familia apaece como el deteminante más impotante del fatalismo. Palabas Clave: fatalismo; atibuciones; endimiento académico; cultua; etnia; mapuche; chile. 1* Intoduction In Chile 11.11% of the total population belongs to a minoity ethnic goup, most of whom (84.11%) ae Mapuche. In the Region of La Aaucanía this ethnic minoity epesents 31% of the population (National Institute of Statistics [INE], 2012). The Mapuche complete fewe yeas of study (8.87 yeas in contast to yeas in the total population), have a highe illiteacy ate (6.5% in contast to 3.3% in the total population) and a highe povety ate (20.5% in contast to 14.8% in the total population) than the est of the county s population (National Socioeconomic Chaacteization Suvey [CASEN], 2009). One of the poblems with education among ethnic minoities is that fequently the eseach that compaes goups, when attibuting integoup diffeences in psychological phenomena to cultual diffeences, does not identify that aspect of the cultue and how it is elated to the vaiations obseved in psychological and behavioal issues. This means that cultual aspects esponsible fo the diffeences obseved between those goups ae not identified o measued * Diección paa coespondencia [Coespondence addess]: Ph.D. Tamaa Otzen, Doctoado en Ciencias Médicas, Univesidad de La Fontea. Avenida Alemania 0458, Temuco (Chile). tamaa.otzen@ufontea.cl Abstact: This study investigated the ole of fatalism as a cultual value oientation and causal attibutions fo past failue in the academic pefomance of high school students in the Aaucania Region of Chile. Thee thousand thee hunded and fouty eight Mapuche and Non-Mapuche students paticipated in the study. Consistent with the Cultue and Behavio model that guided the eseach, the test of causal models based on the analysis of stuctual equations show that academic pefomance is in pat a function of vaiations in the level of fatalism, diectly as well as indiectly though its influence in the attibution pocesses and failue-elated emotions. In geneal, the model epesenting the poposed stuctue of elations among fatalism, attibutions, and emotions as deteminants of academic pefomance fit the data fo both Mapuche and non-mapuche students. Howeve, esults show that some of the elations in the model ae diffeent fo students fom these two ethnic goups. Finally, accoding to the esults fom the analysis of causal models, family SES appea to be the most impotant deteminant of fatalism. Key wods: fatalism; attibutions; academic pefomance; cultue; ethnic; mapuche; chile. (Betancout & Fuentes, 2001; Betancout, Hadin, & Manzi, 1992; Betancout & López, 1993). As a esult, this encouages the steeotypes and pejudices towads the membes of minoity goups and often the ceation of policies o inteventions which ae aely effective. This study is guided by Betancout s theoetical model on cultue and behavio (Betancout & Weine, 1982; Betancout, Hadin, & Manzi, 1992; Betancout & López, 1993; Betancout & Fuentes, 2001; Betancout & Flynn, 2009). This model (see Figue 1) poposes that it is cultue, not necessaily ace o othe population factos, that most diectly influences psychological pocesses and behavio. As shown in Figue 1, the demogaphic vaiables (A) ae souces of cultual vaiation (B), and it is the cultue that influences behavio (D) diectly and though psychological pocesses (C). Fatalism, as a cultually tansmitted value oientation, has to do with the balance between human beings and natue o suoundings (Hofstede, 2001; Kluckholn & Stodtbeck, 1961). In this sense the fatalistic value oientation opeates in two sepaated constucts: domination (contol ove natue) and fatalism (submission to natue). Fatalism has moe ecently been defined as an oveall view that visualizes the events of life as unpedictable and suggests that ou individual destiny is beyond ou contol (Davinson, Fakel & Smith,

2 342 Tamaa Otzen et al. 1992). Additionally, eseaches in the education field have found indications of a elationship between fatalistic beliefs and negative academic attitudes and low pefomance in adolescents (Guzmán, Santiago-Rivea, & Haas, 2005; Matute-Bianchi, 1986). Betancout s Model of Cultue, Psychological Pocesses, and Behavio (Betancout & Flynn 2009) Fom distal. Population Categoies Fo example, Ethnicity and SES Cultual Factos Fo example, Fatalism to moe poximal deteminants of behavio Psychological Pocesses Fo example, Attibutional pocesses and emotions Behavio Fo example, Academic behavio A B C D Figue 1. Betancout s theoetical model on cultue and behavio. Geneally, the obsevations (Powe, 2001; Skinne, Champion, Menon & Seshandi, 2002; Navaete, 2006) suggest that fatalism is patly a function of factos such as socioeconomic status (SES). Fo example, it is possible that the expeience of living in situations of exteme povety, whee individuals have no contol ove what happens and cannot change thei situation, can esult in socially shaed fatalistic beliefs and value oientations. This could lead people to attibute difficulties and academic failue to causes peceived as stable and uncontollable causes, which could poduce negative motivational effects, such as leaned esignation and expectations of futue failue, which in tun can affect pofessional aspiations (Navaete, 2005). Fatalism and Causal Attibution Weine s attibution theoy of motivation (1979, 1985, 1996) posits that the causes to which people attibute thei successes and failues have impotant psychological consequences, paticulaly at the motivational level. Fom this pespective, what eally detemines motivation ae the diffeent intepetations and assessments that the subject makes of his o he own academic esults. This theoy maintains that academic motivation is patly a function of the causes to which success and failue ae attibuted. This is to say, it deives fom the popeties o chaacteistics: intenal-extenal, stable-unstable and contollable-uncontollable. What to expect in the futue, paticulaly expectations of success o failue, depends mainly on the dimension stability-unstability. The attibutions also made in elation to failue geneate emotions associated with these expectations, which also have consideable motivational effects (Weine, 1985). In the case of fatalism, it has been obseved that students with highe degees of fatalism tend to attibute thei failues in academic issues to moe stable causes than those with lowe levels. In addition, they indicate moe negative emotions that influence academic behavio (Navaete, 2005). The aim of this study is to investigate academic pefomance based on cultual factos and elevant psychological pocesses in Mapuche and non-mapuche high school students in the Region of La Aaucanía, Chile. Specifically, we investigate the ole of fatalism as a cultual value oientation associated with population divesity, ethnic goup and SES, and its effect on causal attibution pocesses of academic failue and emotions as deteminants of academic pefomance (see Figue 2). Figue 2. Hypotheses based model. Method Paticipants 3,348 high school senios (37.5% Mapuche, 62.5% non- Mapuche) belonging to 48 education disticts in the Region of La Aaucanía in southen Chile paticipated. Of these, 46.4% wee boys and 53.6% gils. The mean age of paticipants was 17.7 yeas (SD= 0.8, ange= 7), with no significant diffeences in tems of the mean age based on gende o ethnic goup. It should be pointed out that the non-mapuche designation efes to people who do not belong to the Ma-

3 Fatalism, Attibutions of Failue and Academic Pefomance in Mapuche and Non-Mapuche Chilean Students 343 puche ethnic goup, without discounting the possibility that they may belong to anothe minoity ethnic goup. In any case, the Mapuche population epesents 99.1% of the indigenous population in the egion (CASEN, 2009). Instuments Value Oientation Scale fo Fatalism (Betancout, et al. 2010; Flynn, 2005; McMillin-Williams, 2004; Navaete, 2006). This instument is made up of two dimensions of fatalism: unpedictability (e.g., Life doesn t give you a beak, so it s bette to take things day by day ) and destiny (e.g., People pefe to go with the flow ). It contains 12 items on a 7- point Liket scale (fom stongly disagee to stongly agee ). Fo the puposes of this study, the language and esponse fomat of the scale wee adapted, obtaining a Conbach s alpha of 0.75, maintaining ten of the oiginal 12 items. Causal Dimension Scale (McAuley, Duncan, & Russell, 1992). Fo this study the scale was tanslated into Spanish (González, Saiz, & Vizcaa, 1993) and adapted fo the Chilean population (González, 1999). The adapted CDSII consists of 16 seven-point semantic diffeential items though which the espondent evaluates the cause of an event in tems of its attibutive popeties. Fo this study only the items of the dimension stability wee consideed (e.g., Something tempoay Something pemanent ). The intenal consistency of this subscale shows a Conbach s alpha of Social Attibution and Emotion Scale (SAES). This was developed by Betancout et al. (2004) to assess the attibutions of intentionality and contollability as well as the emotions elated to the popeties of these attibutions. The subscale used hee is the one that measues emotions (e.g., Did you feel guilty? ), with a 7-point Liket esponse scale (fom no to vey much ). The intenal consistency of the SAES estimated by means of the Conbach s alpha is Pocedue Contact was made with the pincipals of all the public high schools. Paticipants wee infomed about the aim of the study and wee asked to espond to a questionnaie. The questionnaie was applied collectively in each class to the students who ageed to paticipate voluntaily and anonymously. Responding to all the items took the paticipants appoximately 40 minutes. Each paticipant eceived an incentive fo thei paticipation. Data analysis In the fist analysis, a Student s t-test was used to contast the means obtained fom the vaiables of inteest: Mapuche vs. non-mapuche and boys vs. gils (see Table 1). Next, we pefomed an analysis of covaiance (ANCOVA) to examine the elationship between the poposed model as a deteminant of academic pefomance. To do this, we used Bentle s pogam fo the analysis of causal models based on stuctual equations EQS 6.0 (Bentle, 2005). The indices of fit used wee: χ 2 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996), CFI (Bentle & Bonnet, 1980) and RMSEA (Bowne & Cudeck, 1993). Additionally, the LaGange and Wald tests wee used to assess the convenience of adding o eliminating paametes, espectively. Finally, measuement equivalence tests and a test of invaiance wee pefomed to test the degee of invaiance of the model paametes fo Mapuche and non-mapuche students. In this case, tests of configual invaiance (TCI), measuement invaiance (TMI) and stuctual invaiance (TSI) wee conducted. If in any of the two last tests a significant χ 2 is obtained, it is necessay to eliminate a estiction as the Lagange Multiplie (LM) test indicates, with a χ 2 > 5.0 (Scott-Lennox & Lennox, 1995). Results Diffeence of means The means, standad deviations and levels of statistical significance ae in Table 1. The Mapuche showed a significantly lowe SES than the non-mapuche t = ; gl = ; p <.001; CI 95%= ). The level of fatalism-destiny was highe fo Mapuche than fo non-mapuche students (t = ; gl = ; p <.005; CI 95% = ). The scoes fo the dimensions fatalismunpedictability wee highe in the gils than in the boys (t= ; gl = ; p <.01; CI 95%= ). The gils pesented lowe levels fo the dimension stability of the causal attibutions than the boys (t = 8.443; gl =2907; p =.000; CI 95% = ), and manifested moe emotions elated to academic failue (t = ; gl= ; p <.001; CI 95%= ). The Mapuche showed lowe academic pefomance than non-mapuche t = 5.204; gl =2842; p <.001; CI 95% = ), and the boys lowe than the gils (t = ; gl =2848; p <.001; CI 95%= ). Analysis of stuctual equations The peliminay analyses showed a significant elation between SES and ethnic goup, one also suggested by the La- Gange test in the peliminay analysis of the model. The peliminay analysis did not show a clea elation between ethnic goup and fatalism levels, so the Wald test suggests that the path between ethnic goup and fatalism be eliminated fom the poposed stuctual equations model. Nevetheless, the data suggest the consideation of fatalism with its two dimensions sepaately; theefoe, the paamete between the dimension unpedictability and academic yield was eliminated accoding to the Wald test, achieving a good fit of the model to the data, CFI = 0.99, χ 2 (gl = 67, n = 2914)= , p =.000, χ 2 /gl = 1.831, RMSEA = 0.021, (see Figue 3 and Table 2).

4 344 Tamaa Otzen et al. Table 1. Means, standad deviations and statistical significances. Mapuche Non-Mapuche Total Boys Gils Total Boys Gils NSE a Mean Fatalism Fat. Unpedict Fat. Destiny a Stability b Emotions b GPA a b a Significant diffeences between ethnic goups (p <.005) b Significant diffeences between gendes (p <.005) * p <.005 Figue 3. Final model. Table 2. Coelation matix and covaiance associated with the final model. Ethnic goup Ed. Fathe Oc. Fathe Fat. Unp. Fat. Dest. Estab. Emot. Sa/B Emot. Sh/G GPA 12th gade -.25 Ed. Fathe Covaiance -.20 Oc. Fathe Fat. Unp. Fat. Dest. Estab. Emot. Sa/B Emot. Sh/G GPA 12th gade -.08**.13 **.05 * -.10 ** -.19 ** -.21 **.10 **.10 ** Covaiance GPA 11th gade -.11**.15 **.05 * -.10 ** -.19 ** -.19 **.05 **.06 **.77 ** Covaiance ** ** ** -.04 * -.11 ** -.05 ** ** ** ** ** -.16 **.72 ** Covaiance Covaiance Covaiance Covaiance Covaiance Covaiance The esults of the stuctual analysis of the poposed model show that SES is associated with lowe levels of fatalism in its two dimensions unpedictability and destiny. In addition, the influence of SES on fatalism levels occus in both Mapuche and non-mapuche students, to the point that the ole of SES as a souce of vaiation in fatalism appeas as a moe impotant facto than ethnic oigin. At the same time, the fatalism level influences academic pefomance though the peception of stability of the causes to which failue is attibuted in its two dimensions, unpedictability and desti-

5 Fatalism, Attibutions of Failue and Academic Pefomance in Mapuche and Non-Mapuche Chilean Students 345 ny. Consideing the two dimensions of fatalism, only one ( destiny ) is diectly elated to academic pefomance, i.e., the stonge the elation between fatalism and destiny, the lowe the academic pefomance. The attibution of failue to moe stable causes is associated with lowe academic pefomance, and when the stability of the causes to which failue is attibuted is geate, the emotions elated to failue ae less intense (sadness, bitteness, shame and guilt). High levels of these emotions ae associated with bette academic pefomance. Finally, a diect influence of SES on academic pefomance is obseved, such that the highe the SES, the highe the academic pefomance, independent of the ole of the othe vaiables in the model. Analysis of invaiance of the model fo the data on boys and gils The TCI (Model 1, see Table 3) suggests the same factos must be consideed fo both boys and gils. The TMI (Model 2, see Table 3) indicates that the fit of the esticted model of measuement was also good, being complemented with a non-significant χ 2 and a positive CFI (see Table 3, Model 3). The TSI shows that the effect of some factos on othes vaies based on whethe it is applied to the sample of boys o gils, showing a good fit with a non-significant χ 2 and a positive CFI, indicating that the paths consideed ae adequate fo both goups (see Figue 4). Table 3. Summay of the model fo the TCI, TMI and TSI fo gende. Models χ 2 gl CFI RMSEA 90%CI Contast χ 2 gl CFI Model 1 Configual Unlimited Model 2 Measuement (Factos elated to gende) vs Model 3 Stuctual (With 16 stuctual paths) vs * p<.05; = p<.1 * p <.005 Figue 4. Model fo boys/(gils). Analysis of invaiance Mapuche and non-mapuche The TCI (see Table 4, Model 1) indicates that the numbe of factos and thei loading ae adequate fo Mapuche and non-mapuche. The TMI (see Table 4, Model 2) shows a good fit of the esticted model of measuement, with a nonsignificant χ 2 and a positive CFI. The TSI (see Table 4, Model 3a) shows a eduction in the fit, which suggests changes in the path estictions. The Lagange test evealed significant diffeences between the goups on the path fom fatalism (destiny) to SES, LM χ 2 (gl= 9) = 6.05, p < 0.02 (see Table 4, Model 3b), as well as on the path fom emotions to academic pefomance, LM χ 2 (gl= 15) = 4.80, p < 0.05 (see Table 4, Model 3c). The identified paths wee eleased sequentially (see Table 4, Model 3b and 3c). The final test of invaiance was excellent and compaable to the model of measuement with a non-significant diffeence, indicating that eleasing the additional paths achieved the adequate fit (see Figue 5).

6 346 Tamaa Otzen et al. Table 4. Summay of the model fo the TCI, TMI and TSI fo ethnic goup. Models χ 2 gl CFI RMSEA 90%CI Contast χ 2 gl CFI Model 1 Configual Unlimited Model 2 Measuement (Factos elated to ethnic goup) vs Model 3a Stuctual (With 16 stuctual paths) a vs * Model 3b Stuctual (With 15 stuctual paths, NSE Fat. Dest. eleased ) b vs Model 3c Stuctual (With 14 stuctual paths, Emotion Pefomance eleased) c vs *= p<.05; = p<.1 * p <.005 Figue 5. Model fo Mapuche/(non-Mapuche). Discussion In geneal tems, the study esults show that fatalism was elated significantly to the paticipants SES, even though ethnic oigin detemines geatly the natue of the elations between fatalism and the othe study vaiables. Nevetheless, it is impotant to bea in mind that this occus within the context of a society whee SES is significantly elated to a peson s ethnic oigin. This is to say, the Mapuche in Chile ae fundamentally epesented at the lowest socioeconomic status, which highlights the impotance that the compaative study between individuals of the dominant goup and nondominant ethnic minoities must take into account the complexity of the elation between ethnic oigin and social class as behavioal deteminants. What makes the esults of this study even moe inteesting is that the Mapuche pesent a highe SES than the non-mapuche, pehaps because the sample is to a lage extent fom the lowe SESs in the egion, whee when contasting the two goups the Mapuche ae favoed in tems of thei SES. The elation between SES and fatalism becomes even moe complex when the psychological factos ae consideed, which accoding to the theoetical model that guided this study epesent influences vey close to the behavio. Fo example, accoding to the esults, individuals with a lowe SES have a lowe academic pefomance. Howeve, the effect of SES on behavio essentially occus though its influence on the cultual vaiable fatalism and the psychological factos that ae most diectly elated to academic pefomance, which is fulfilled when the model is tested. Nevetheless, the diect path obseved in the esults suggests that in addition to this effect thee ae aspects elated to SES that affect academic pefomance, independent of the ole of the cultual and psychological vaiables. In the case of the gils, the diect link of attibution to academic pefomance is mediated by emotions, a conside-

7 Fatalism, Attibutions of Failue and Academic Pefomance in Mapuche and Non-Mapuche Chilean Students 347 ably smalle elation in the boys. This is consistent with the liteatue on taditional cultues, whee a geate expession of feelings by women is obseved (Body & Hall, 2000; Alcalá et al., 2006; Inglés et al., 2011). Such obsevations ae impotant fom both a conceptual and an applied pespective, since accoding to these esults, wok o intevention with students of a diffeent cultual oigin should take into account not only the ethnic oigin but also SES, gende, and pobably othe population factos that may influence academic pefomance o simila behavios, eithe diectly o by means of thei elation with the cultual and psychological aspects closest to the behavio. It is of geat elevance to ascetain the cultual and psychological aspects that influence the behavio of young Mapuche people, as these can detemine a situation of selfexclusion o decline in academic achievement. This not only incopoates new infomation, but also allows the poduction of explanatoy models fom which moe effective intevention stategies can be designed that help evese the inequalities in education. It is impotant to conside that the cuent education cuiculum puts the students fom a minoity ethnic goup at a disadvantage, as thee is infomation egading indigenous young people who go to high school having adjustment difficulties and expeiencing disadvantages in seconday education (Sepúlveda, 2006; Enesco et al., 2011). This shows a pesistence in education diffeences, epoducing the inequalities of the social classes and making adequate pepaation fo highe education difficult. Conclusions We can conclude that the esults of this study demonstate the suitability of the theoetical model and its utility to study academic pefomance fom a cultual pespective, adapted to a socioeconomic eality of high instability o unpedictability. It is impotant to conside that the pesent study has only included and measued fatalism, which appeas to be one of the cultual vaiables that can influence academic pefomance, but thee could be othe population factos that can povide infomation about academic pefomance, such as SES o ethnicity. Futue investigations could identify and test the potential effect of such cultual vaiables and thei population oigins, including SES, ethnic goup, eligion o egion fo both Mapuche and non-mapuche, boys and gils. It is wothy of note that thee ae aspects of fatalism as well as cognitive and emotional factos that opeate paticulaly fo Mapuche and non-mapuche, boys and gils. Fo example, the same factos and the same stuctue of the elations between the vaiables pedict academic pefomance fo the two ethnic goups. Thee ae some factos, howeve, that influence academic pefomance in Mapuche and non- Mapuche students diffeently, which highlights the impotance that futue investigations should systematically examine the appaently modeating ole that ethnic oigin may play. This could imply, fo example, that even though povety levels o fatalism ae the same fo Mapuche and non- Mapuche students, these could affect students fom one o the othe ethnic goup diffeently. The same could also hold in the case of boys and gils. Finally, among the limitations of the pesent study, it is impotant to emphasize that the paticipants self-identified as Mapuche o non-mapuche. It would be inteesting to be able to cooboate whethe the ethnic oigin stems fom both paents, as well as the level of ethnic identity that the paticipants exhibit. Finally, some chaacteistics of the sample have to do with the fact that most of the paticipants belong to a lowe middle SES, which limits the possibilities of analysis. 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