Dikran J. Martin. Psychology 110. Name: Date: Principal Features. "First, the term learning does not apply to (168)
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1 Dikran J. Martin Psychology 110 Name: Date: Lecture Series: Chapter 5 Learning: How We're Changed Pages: 26 by Experience TEXT: Baron, Robert A. (2001). Psychology (Fifth Edition). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Introduction Principal Features " learning (is) any relatively permanent change in behavior, or behavior potential, produced by experience." Complete the following: "Several aspects of this definition are noteworthy." "First, the term learning does not apply to (168) "Second, it does not refer to changes resulting from ( ) "Third, learning can result from (169) "Finally, the changes produced by learning are not always -1-
2 Classical Conditioning: Learning That Some Stimuli Signal Others [Illustration]Classical Conditioning: A Simple Example. ( ) What is the role of the stimulus in classical conditioning? (170) \ -2-
3 Pavlov's Early Work on Classical Conditioning: Does This Ring a Bell? What is the role of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (171) in Ivan Pavlov's early research on conditioning? What is the role of the unconditioned response (UCR) in Ivan Pavlov's early research on conditioning? What is the role of the conditioned stimulus (CS) in Ivan Pavlov's early research on conditioning? What is the role of the conditioned response (CR) in Ivan Pavlov's early research on conditioning? -3-
4 Classical Conditioning: Some Basic Principles ACQUISITION: THE COURSE OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING What is the process of acquisition in classical conditioning? (172) What is the factor of temporal arrangement of CS-UCS pairings? What's the meaning of the following statement? " delay conditioning and trace conditioning are examples of what is termed forward conditioning " What is the role of the simultaneous conditioning in classical conditioning? What is the role of the backward conditioning in classical conditioning? -4-
5 Classical Conditioning: Some Basic Principles (Continued) Why does research suggest that delay conditioning is generally (173) the most effective method for establishing a conditioned response? Complete the following: "Several additional factors also appear to affect conditioning." "In general, conditioning is faster when the "Second, conditioning also depends on the time interval between "Finally, familiarity can greatly EXTINCTION: ONCE CONDITIONING IS ACQUIRED, HOW DO WE GET RID OF IT? [Illustration] Extinction. -5-
6 EXTINCTION: ONCE CONDITIONING IS ACQUIRED, HOW DO WE GET RID OF IT? (Continued) What is the process of reconditioning in classical conditioning? (173) What is the process of spontaneous recovery in classical (174) conditioning? GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION: RESPONDING TO SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES What is the process of stimulus generalization in classical conditioning? [Illustration] Stimulus generalization. -6-
7 GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION: RESPONDING TO SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES (Continued) What is the process of stimulus discrimination in classical conditioning? [Illustration] Stimulus discrimination. Classical Conditioning: The Neural Basis of Learning What is the neural basis of classical conditioning and other (175) kinds of learning? [Evidence: The neural basis of learning. -7-
8 Classical Conditioning: Exceptions to the Rules " findings (seem) to indicate that not all organisms learn all responses or all associations between stimuli with equal ease." [Evidence: Biological constraints on learning. ( ) CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSIONS: BREAKING ALL THE RULES? What is the process of conditioned taste aversion in classical (177) conditioning? -8-
9 CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSIONS: BREAKING ALL THE RULES? [Illustrations] Conditioned taste aversions. ( ) Classical Conditioning: A Cognitive Perspective "There is a growing consensus among psychologists that classical conditioning involves more than just formation of a simple association." [Illustrations] Cognitive processes that play a role in classical ( ) conditioning? -9-
10 Classical Conditioning: Turning Principles into Action CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND DRUG OVERDOSE "Knowledge of conditioning processes has helped to explain some instances of drug overdose." [Illustrations] Classical conditioning and drug overdose. ( ) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM "Research also seems to indicate that it may be possible to alter the immune system through classical conditioning." [Illustration] Using classical conditioning to enhance specific immune (180) function. -10-
11 Operant Conditioning: Learning Based on Consequences [Illustration] Operant conditioning. (182) The Nature of Operant Conditioning: Consequential Operations "In situations involving operant conditioning, the probability that a given behavior will occur changes depending on the consequences that follow it." "Psychologists generally agree that these probabilities are determined through four basic procedures, two of which strengthen or increase the rate of behavior and two of which weaken or decrease the rate of behavior." REINFORCEMENTS "There are two types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement." What is the process of positive reinforcement in operant (183) reinforcement? -11-
12 REINFORCEMENTS (Conditioned) [Illustrations] Positive reinforcement (and the Premack principle). (183) What is the process of negative reinforcement in operant (184) reinforcement? [Illustrations] Negative reinforcement. PUNISHMENT What is the difference between reinforcement and punishment? -12-
13 PUNISHMENT (Continued) [Illustrations] Punishment. from Science to PRACTICE "Horse Whispering": Applying Operant Conditioning to Treat Troubled Horses [Illustration] Monty Roberts use of the join-up method to train ( ) troubled horses. Operant Conditioning: Some Basic Principles "In operant conditioning organisms learn associations between particular behaviors and the consequences that follow them." -13-
14 SHAPING AND CHAINING: GETTING BEHAVIOR STARTED AND THEN PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER What is the process of shaping in operant reinforcement? (187) What is the procedure called chaining in operant reinforcement? [Illustrations] Shaping and chaining in operant conditioning. Can shaping and chaining be used to establish virtually any ( ) form of behavior in any organism? -14-
15 THE ROLE OF REWARD DELAY IN IMPULSIVENESS AND PROCRASTINATION: TWO SIDES OF THE SAME COIN What is the role of reward delay in operant conditioning? (188) [Illustrations] Reward delay in operant conditioning. ( ) SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: DIFFERENT RULES FOR DELIVERY OF PAYOFFS " under natural conditions reinforcement is often an uncertain event." [Examples] Reinforcement as an uncertain event. ( ) -15-
16 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: DIFFERENT RULES FOR DELIVERY OF PAYOFFS (Continued) "(Learning) rules known as schedules of reinforcement affect behavior." What is the procedure called continuous reinforcement (190) schedule (CRF) in operant reinforcement? What is the procedure called fixed-interval schedule in operant reinforcement? [Example] Fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement. What is the procedure called variable-interval schedule in operant reinforcement? -16-
17 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: DIFFERENT RULES FOR DELIVERY OF PAYOFFS (Continued) [Examples] Variable-interval schedule of reinforcement. (191) What is the procedure called fixed-ratio schedule in operant reinforcement? [Examples] Fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement. What is the procedure called variable-ratio schedule in operant reinforcement? -17-
18 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: DIFFERENT RULES FOR DELIVERY OF PAYOFFS (Continued) [Examples] Variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement. (191) What is the phenomenon known as the partial reinforcement effect in operant reinforcement? CONCURRENT SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT AND THE MATCHING LAW "Many psychologists readily admit that schedules of reinforcement do not fully account for the complex forms of human behavior observed in everyday life." What is the procedure called concurrent schedule of (192) reinforcement in operant reinforcement? [Examples] Concurrent schedule of reinforcement. ( ) -18-
19 STIMULUS CONTROL OF BEHAVIOR: SIGNALS ABOUT THE USEFULNESS (OR USELESSNESS) OF RESPONSES "People and other animals readily learn to pay attention to cues in the environment that reliably signal certain consequences for their actions." [Example] Stimulus control of behavior (discriminative stimuli; (193) stimulus control) "Stimulus control has important applications " [Example] Practical application of stimulus control of behavior. Operant Conditioning: A Cognitive Perspective " many psychologists believe that no account of operant conditioning can be complete without attention to cognitive factors." -19-
20 LEARNED HELPLESSNESS: THROWING IN THE TOWEL WHEN NOTHING SEEMS TO WORK What is the behavior known as learned helplessness? (194) "Research on learned helplessness seems to suggest that its onset stems partly from our perceptions of control " [Example] Learned helplessness. "Researchers have begun speculate that genetic factors may also play a role in learned helplessness." "One such factor that has gained recent attention is a genetically inherited impairment in the ability to experience pleasure termed hypohedonia." [Example] Hypohedonia. (195) -20-
21 EVIDENCE THAT IT'S ALL RELATIVE: THE CONTRAST EFFECT "Some evidence suggests that our behavior is influenced not only by the level of rewards we receive but by our evaluation of rewards relative to our experiences with previous rewards." What is the behavior shift known as the contrast effect? (195) What is the behavior shift known as the positive contrast ( ) effect? What is the behavior shift known as the negative contrast (196) effect? TOLMAN'S COGNITIVE MAP: A CLASSIC STUDY IN THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY " evidence suggests that cognitive processes play an important role in learning among animals." [Evidence] Role of cognitive processes in learning. ( ) -21-
22 Research Methods How Psychologists Study Applications of Operant Conditioning What is the branch of psychology known as applied behavior (197) analysis? [Evidence] Applied behavior analysis in action. ( ) Applying Operant Conditioning: Solving Problems of Everyday Life "Because positive and negative reinforcement exert powerful effects on behavior, procedures based on operant conditioning have been applied in many practical settings " [Illustration] Computer-assisted instruction. (199) -22-
23 Applying Operant Conditioning: Solving Problems of Everyday Life (Continued) [Illustration] Biofeedback. (199) "Finally, principles of operant conditioning have been applied in interventions aimed at solving socially significant issues in our communities, such as crime, energy conservation and recycling, health care issues, consumer affairs, and safety promotion," Observational Learning: Learning from the Behavior and Outcomes of Others What is observational learning? (200) [Illustrations] Observational learning. -23-
24 Observational Learning: Some Basic Principles "Given that observational learning exists, what factors and conditions determine whether, and to what extent, we acquire behaviors, information, or concepts from others?" Note the following four factors that appear to be most important. Attention (200) To remember (201) Production processes Motivation Observational Learning and Aggression "Can young people learn aggression through watching the actions of others?" [Evidence] Observation learning and aggression. ( ) -24-
25 Observational Learning and Culture "Recently, psychologists have applied principles of observational learning to help meet a challenge of growing concern: preparing people to handle 'culture shock.' " [Illustrations] Observational learning to soften the effects of culture shock. ( ) Observational Learning: Some Practical Applications " the effects of observational learning on our behavior can indeed be powerful and not always for the good." [Illustrations] Potential negative effects of observational learning. ( ) -25-
26 Observational Learning: Some Practical Applications (Continued) " there is a large body of evidence showing that peer influence can also be used to promote more productive behaviors." [Illustrations] Potential positive effects of observational learning. (204) END -26-
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