Question: Abstract: University of the Arts London Camberwell College of Art. Neil Bradley-Young

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1 University of the Arts London Camberwell College of Art Name: Number: Subject: Unit Title: Unit Code: Neil Bradley-Young BRA MA Digital Arts (Online) Postgraduate Professional Development PGPD Question: By comparing feminist critiques of Freud s work on the development of sexuality in relation to the fragmentation of body image as influenced by consumer culture This paper will discus the performance for camera work of Rebecca Horn and Orlan in terms of the notion of phallic representation and the performed self. Abstract: By discussing the Freudian notion of the phallus in relation to the feminist critique of Lorraine Gamman, Emily Apter and Rosalind Coward I intend to illustrate some of the difficulties which arise when discussing Freud in relation to feminine sexuality, while finding useful material relating to inter-gender power play to further fuel the debate on the fragmented body in terms of phallic representation. It has been suggested by sociological observers Erving Goffman and Judith Butler that personal identity and a fully developed sense of selfhood does not exist in isolation. Rather, that the self is a kind of performance - A drama which is played out by individuals in relation to various social & cultural influences. The purpose of this paper is to discus their ideas in relation to a post-freudian definition of the phallus as a partial and transitory phenomenon, which can be seen to exist under the influence of consumer culture as described by the American historian Christopher Lash. I will then examine this concept in relation to the notion of the phallic self as represented in the performance for camera art of Rebecca Horn and Orlan. The purpose of this paper is to hypothesize that the self can be considered as a fragmentation of masculine and feminine attributes according to the cultural importance invested in specific physical characteristics of the body as a form of general cultural fetishism. By making examples of the works of Horn & Orlan, I will argue that it is not only the performance of a phallic action that is at stake - It is the nature of recording the action via lens based media which attaches further meaning to their work.

2 Essay: Fragmentation of the Body, Phallic Representation and the Performed Self. To understand how fetishism might be considered as a kind of inter-gender power play It is helpful to examine Freud s notion of the phallus in relation to the Oedipus complex. The Oedipus complex is said to result from male child s natural instinct to take the mother as his first love object, and his increasing resentment towards the father for preventing an exclusive relationship. Because the father s dominance is clear, and as prevention against incest, Freud believed that the child would develop a fear of castration at the hands of the father. Freud also went so far as to suggest that the child would assume that the mother has been castrated by the father for it is to him that as a child he ascribed the woman s castration. (Freud. 1991: p357) Freud suggests that the Oedipus complex, if unresolved can produce the phenomenon of sexual fetishism. The process of which is described as disavowal - A system of substitution, in Freud s own words, the fetish is a substitute for the woman s (the mother s) penis (Freud. 1991: p352) Freud suggests that a fetish is developed when the missing female phallus is transferred onto another object, which can be used by the fetishist to make the female body less threatening due to the denial of the anatomical distinction between the sexes. In these terms, the fetish remains a token of triumph over the threat of castration and a protection against it. (Freud. 1991: p353) It is not difficult to spot the controversies in Freud s Oedipus theory How does it effect feminine sexuality for example? Freud states that the female child actually, acknowledges the fact of her castration, and with it, too, the superiority of the male and her own inferiority (Freud. 1991: p353)

3 Many would consider the notion that women would suffer castration anxiety at the site of their own genitals, as well as penis envy upon the discovery of the male organ as a fairly questionable idea to say the least. One such person is the feminist psychoanalyst Lorraine Gamman; Girls do not undergo a horror at the site of female genitals, because that is what they are accustomed to. Women, therefore, do not need to deny any anxiety about losing the penis, since that have no penis to lose; and so, according to Freud they do not need a fetish. (Gamman & Makinen. 1995: p95) Feminine-theorist, Emily Apter s reading of Freud is a little more liberal. She explains that it is not specifically Freud s intention to burden women with castration anxiety. Rather to place enfaces on a sense of envy for the phallus. Girls, Freud stipulated, would experience penis envy rather than castration anxiety. Their means of symbolically compensating for phallic absence lay in pregnancy, child rearing, or a kind of meditated narcissism in which they projected their own bodies through the gaze of a male fetishist look. (Apter. 1991: p168) Apter s critique allows us to examine the self in terms of phallic possession: As an attribute of the self, the phallus may be perceived as being possessed by an individual Western Advertising imagery has often been critisised for putting pressure on consumers to attain possession of a prescribed body image. Rosalind Coward also describes how a fragmented body image can be considered as a commodity in relation to mass media representation. Advertising in this society builds precisely on the creation of an anxiety to the effect that, unless we measure up, we will not be loved. (Coward. 1987: p.80) Coward goes on to suggest that: advertisements, health and beauty advice, fashion tips are effective precisely because somewhere, perhaps even subconsciously, an

4 anxiety, rather than a pleasurable identification, is awakened. We take interest, yes. But these images do not bring back a glow of self-love as the image in the pool did for narcissus. The faces that look back imply a criticism Every minute region of the body is now exposed to this scrutiny by the ideal. Mouth, hair, eyes, eyelashes, nails, fingers, hands, skin, teeth, lips, cheeks, shoulders, arms, legs, feet (Coward. 1987: p.80) Coward also hypothesizes that the attention paid to the attainment of perfection in body image generated by advertising may have created a form of common, non-gender specific partial object fetishism based around this fragmentation of the body: Somewhere along the line, most women know that the image is impossible, and corresponds to the wishes of our culture rather than being actually attainable. We remain trapped by the image, though because our culture generates such a violent dislike of fat, fragmenting our bodies into separate areas, each of them in their own way too big. Paradoxically, though, this fragmentation also saves us from despair. Most women actually maintain an ambiguous relation to the ideal image; it is rarely rejected totally it pervades fantasies of transforming the self. But at the same time, there s far more narcissistic selfaffirmation among women than is sometimes assumed. Because of the fragmentation of the body into separate areas, most women value certain aspects of their bodies: eyes, hair, teeth, smile. (Coward: 1987: p45) The concept that men might also suffer similar pressures is not often dealt with. However, in terms of the development of selfhood one can hypothesize that both traditional feminine and masculine attributes can be found to develop within a single individual. Christopher Lash discuses how cultural experience, which is common to both genders can effect the development of the self. Lasch s work can be

5 considered useful to this debate as it crosses the boundaries between Freudian analysis and feminist theory. In an explanation of Lasch s critique of consumer culture, Anthony Elliott stats that: On the level of personal relationships, consumer capitalism dehumanizes the self; the self retreats from involvement with other people and the public realm. In the process the individual cultivates a sense of psychic detachment necessary for the pursuit of empty, private preoccupations: style, attractiveness, fitness and beauty. (Elliott. 2001: p71) The idea that the one may subject oneself to such harsh criticism may be explained by Lacan s notion of the Mirror stage. In the words of Anthony Elliott. For Freud s most famous French interpreter, Jacques Lacan ( ), the individual subject establishes a sense of self through visual identification with its image in a mirror. (Elliott. 2001: p53) Indeed Lacan states that: We have only to understand the mirror stage as an identification, in the full sense that analysis gives to the term: namely, the transition that takes place in the subject when he 1 assumes an image (Lacan. 1977: p2) Lacan also investigated the idea that self-awareness is awakened in early infancy, through an identification with ones own mirror image. However this self-recognition is not without a sense of fantasy or illusion, as the reflection in the mirror is merely a trick of light it is the Childs mind, which creates a multitude of associations with it. As Anthony Elliott argues: 1 The use of the masculine reference he may have either been used by Lacan to describe the male child specifically or to encompass both sexes. Whichever the case is, it is possible to suggest that this notion of transition can be applied to both sexes in support of my main argument that men and women will experience fetishism due to social conditioning.

6 The reflecting mirror, because it is outside and other to the subject, leads to a misrecognised sense of self-hood. The ego or self, says Lacan, is a fiction; selfhood is frozen as an image of something that does not exist. (Elliott. 2001: p54) What we can deduce from this is that the notion of self image is in fact a construction of our own psychies and therefore subject to psychological manipulation, after all, as Elliott argues. All images of the self are intrinsically false, for the self is a delusion. (Elliott. 2001: p54) In this context one can consider the perception of self is something, which is constructed and performed by an individual in relation to their cultural experience. Erving Goffman describes the metaphor of the theater for the presentation of the self, whereby, individuals perform roles and stage manage impressions within specific social settings. (Elliott. 2001: p31) Goffman uses this example to explain the concept, A woman rapidly walking to a museum exit, passes the door, catches her mistake, utters oops!, and backtracks to the right place. (cited in Lemert & Branaman. 1997: p193) Goffman suggests that the oops! is a response cry. A reaction to a situation in which the subject creates a performance to demonstrate her self awareness to others around her. In this way she excuses herself from criticism by publicly acknowledging her own mistake. The notion that the self is a performance is particularly interesting in terms of gender studies. In one of her most celebrated works Gender Trouble Judith Butler begins to question feminism as an identity-based movement. One particular attitude that Butler disagrees with is Simone de Beauvouir s notion that the fabrication of identity automatically connects to an already sexed body. (cited in Elliot. 2001: p.117) Butler Argues that this idea actually reaffirms a relationship between anatomy and gender, rather than promoting the idea that gender is something which is self constructed and not prescribed by anatomically being. It appears that a distinction can be drawn between the sexed body What Freud referred to as the anatomical distinction between the sexes (Freud

7 1991) and constructed gender in the mind of an individual in relation to their social and cultural circumstances. In these terms one can begin to think of gender as a product of the mind rather than the body. It may be safer to suggest that gender is something that is defined by an individual s attitude to their anatomical position within society. Judith Butler explains the notions of gender construction and sexual performance by suggesting that the self is always dressing up for sex, or putting on a performance of gender, a performance in which selves are constituted and authenticated. (cited in Elliot. 2001:p.115) In terms of representing the idea of the phallic self in visual art, it is particularly interesting to consider performance for camera work, in which an event is staged specifically to be documented using lens-based media. The effect of recording an event in film, video or photography is that the event becomes a kind of living history to be replayed and reviewed multiple times However, the viewer understands that it is a recording and the event has already taken place. In some cases this can be seen to evoke feelings of absence and disconnection. Rosalind Coward makes note of this phenomenon: photographs trick us. Instead of objective records, we encounter absence. Photography confronts us, most of all, with a sense of images of something, which is no longer happening, is no longer there. It recalls the possibility of our own absence, and death, and yields up a view of a full world and our existence in it. (Coward: 1987: p.53) This idea can be illustrated by the performance of German artist Rebecca Horn entitled Berlin-Ubungen, mit zwei Scheren gleichzeitig Haare schneiden.

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9 During this performance Horn uses two pairs of large metal sewing scissors to continuously snip away small pieces of her long hair, until it has been cut short. Throughout the act, Horn maintains close eye contact with the viewer. Unable to avoid her gaze, the spectator is drawn in to the uncomfortable act. Her method can be seen to disempower the spectator, for as the perpetrator/activist she is in complete control of the extent of the action inflicted upon herself. The viewer remains powerless to intervene as the event has already taken place. This act can be seen to connote notions of the burden of perfection and conformity to the ideal being lifted literally from the artist s shoulders. Horne s gaze and proximity confront the viewer in such a way as to project her actions toward the spectator. In the context of Lacan s notion of the mirror stage Horn presents herself as a reflection directed back towards the spectator. Another example of the representation of a phallic act via a fragmentation of body image in relation to performance and the self can be found in the work of French born artist Orlan, entitled Omnipresence V Parvenu Adams discusses this work in detail in her book The Emptiness of the image. Like Horn s haircutting performance, Orlan s work deals largely with the theme of transition. She has undergone several documented surgical procedures in order to change the appearance of her face, to achieve a specific esthetic in line with representations of women in classical painting. Omnipresence itself consisted of a televised cheek implant operation performed on Orlan s own face, while she remained conscious, and able to carry out a discourse with her spectators while her face was literally peeled away from her skull in order to position the implants under her skin.

10 Orlan, Omnipresence v. Adams picks up on the notion of woman-to-woman transsexualism which she believes, is brought into question by Orlan s work by explaining that: She is changing, not from one thing to another metamorphosis but from one register to another. What is at stake is abstraction through art, both the art of the image and the art of the scalpel. She claims to be flesh become image. (Adams. 1996: p144) What Adams seems to be suggesting is that, there is a distinct difference between otherness in terms of sexual difference and otherness in terms of what an individual may become through a process of physical manipulation. Therefore a person may become phallic through an enhancement of their characteristic attributes as well as through a rejection of them, both may be considered as processes of Refiguration. Adams uses the example of male

11 transsexualism as a contrast to gain an understanding of the developmental process of the feminine phallic transition: In the case of the man who is convinced he is a woman trapped in the body of a man, the transsexual act is the attempt to avoid psychosis. Yet it involves not the empirical wish to be a woman rather than a man, but the omnipotent denial of sexual difference as such. For frequently the urge to refiguration involves a wish not to become a woman, but to become The Woman. That is to become the phallus through castration in Orlan s case it is not to cross the frontier of sexual difference, but as a woman-to-woman transition that is from her individuality (what we are helplessly given) to what she artfully chooses she might still be aiming to be The Woman, to become the Phallus with all the help she can muster in the galleries of western representations of women. (Adams. 1996: p144) In conclusion one is now able to define a framework for the relationship between the phallus as a transitional partial object and the representation of the fragmented body in visual art as a response to consumer culture.

12 Literature Review: Freud, S. (1991), Fetishism. IN: On Sexuality, Penguin. Originally published in Freud outlines his Oedipus complex theory on the sexual development of both male and female individuals. His arguments are largely based on a study of male sexuality and as such have come under fire by feminist theory during the later half of the 20 th century. Freud s theory is important, as it has established a framework for the discussion of sexual development in relation to fetishism and the fragmentation of body image. As such this work has become a backdrop to contemporary debates on sexuality, representation and the self. Elliott, A (2001) Concepts of the Self. Cambridge: Polity Press Anthony Elliot s book works as a practical overview of contemporary debates relating to the concepts of the self. It is useful as it gathers information from various fields of social science and arts in order to describe the relationship between ideas across this diverse subject area. Elliot s discussion of feminist theory in relation to psychoanalysis and his explanation of Christopher Lasch s critique of consumer culture are particularly useful. Coward, R (1987) The Body Beautiful. IN: Female Desire: Women s Sexuality Today, Paladin Rosalind Coward discusses feminine sexuality in relation to consumer culture and the mechanics of desire. Cowards work is useful in that it helps to define a framework for the notion of the fragmented body image in relation to Freud s concept of fetishism. Coward expresses the opinion that media representations of the feminine ideal can be a catalyst for a fragmentation of the self. Apter, E (1991) Splitting Hairs: Female Fetishism and postpartum sentimentality in Fin de Siecle. IN: Eroticism and the Body Politic, Lynn Hunt (Ed) The Johns Hopkins University Press Emily Apter s work talks about the socio-cultural politics of the body in relation to the development of feminine sexuality. Apter discuses Freud s notion of penis envy, narcissism, the male gaze and their possible relevance to feminine sexuality. Apter shares Coward s view that feminine sexuality in the west has been manipulated by representations of women in advertising and the media - Causing a fragmentation of body image and an internalised form of female fetishism.

13 Adams, P. (1996) Operation Orlan. IN: The Emptiness of the Image Psychoanalysis and Sexual Difference, London: Routledge. Parveen Adams discusses the notion of the phallus in terms of feminine sexuality. She talks about the female fetish as being a self directed, transitional object. She also describes a process which she refers to as woman to woman transexualism in which the feminine body is fragmented, manipulated and reformed by the subject herself. Adam s uses examples from fine art to illustrate her theory. One section of particular interest is her analysis of the performance for camera work of French artist Orlan. Bibliography: Adams, P. (1996) Operation Orlan. IN: The Emptiness of the Image Psychoanalysis and Sexual Difference, London: Routledge. Apter, E (1991) Splitting Hairs: Female Fetishism and postpartum sentimentality in Fin de Siecle. IN: Eroticism and the Body Politic, Lynn Hunt (Ed) The Johns Hopkins University Press Coward, R (1987) The Body Beautiful. IN: Female Desire: Women s Sexuality Today. Paladin Elliott, A (2001) Concepts of the Self. Cambridge: Polity Press Freud, S. (1991), Fetishism. IN: On Sexuality. Penguin. Gamman, L & Makinen, M. (1995 ) Female fetishism. New York: New York University Press Lacan, J (1977) The Mirror stage as a formative of the function of the I as revealed in psychoanalytic experience. IN: Ecrits a selection. Tavistock publications Ltd. Lemert, C & Branaman, A (Ed) (1997) The Goffman Reader. Oxford: Blackwell