Tony Capizzani, MD, FACS

Transcription

1 Tony Capizzani, MD, FACS Trauma Medical Director Hillcrest Hospital Cleveland Clinic October 2, 2017

2 No disclosures

3 Goals and Objectives Describe airway anatomy and innervation Recognize the association of a traumatic mechanism and a potential airway injury Implement the management of a traumatic airway in different clinic settings Explain various surgical airway approaches

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8 The Traumatic Airway Case Presentation Anatomy Mechanism of Injury Management Summary

9 The Traumatic Airway Case Presentations Anatomy Mechanism of Injury Management Summary

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11 The Traumatic Airway Case Presentations Anatomy Mechanism of Injury Management Summary

12 The Pharyngeal Anatomic Divisions Nasopharynx Termination of the turbinates and nasal septum Soft palate. Oropharynx Soft palate Hyoid bone. Hypopharynx Hyoid bone First tracheal ring AKA Laryngopharynx

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15 Laryngeal Anatomy

16 Cricoid Cartilage Anatomic lower limit of the larynx Only complete cartilaginous ring in the upper airway Attaches to the thyroid cartilage by the cricothyroid membrane. Surgical airway Identification in the patient with poor anatomic landmarks.

17 Innervation of the Airway

18 Innervation of the Nasal Passage and Nasopharynx: CN 5 Anterior 1/3 of the nares. Anterior ethmoidal nerve Posterior 2/3 of the nares. Greater and Lesser Palatine nerve

19 Innervation for the Oropharynx: CN 9 Anatomy Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN9)

20 Innervation for the Oropharynx: CN 9 Poster 1/3 tongue, Gag reflex Vallecula, Anterior surface of the epiglottis (lingual branch), Posterior and lateral walls of the pharynx (pharyngeal branch), and Tonsillar pillars (tonsillar branch).

21 Laryngeal Innervation: CN 10 CN X (Vagus) Superior laryngeal nerve Internal laryngeal nerve Posterior epiglottis to vocal cords Penetrates at the thyrohyoid membrane External laryngeal nerve. Cricothyroid muscle

22 Innervation of Trachea and Vocal Cords Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve Sensory innervation of the tracheobronchial tree up to and including the vocal cords Intrinsic laryngeal musculature except cricothyroid muscle

23 Why should we know the Anatomy and innervation?

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25 The Traumatic Airway Case Presentations Anatomy Mechanism of Injury Penetrating Blunt Iatrogenic Inhalation Management Summary

26 The Traumatic Airway Case Presentations Anatomy Mechanism of Injury Penetrating Blunt Iatrogenic Inhalation Management Summary

27 Cavitation effects of a bullet wound in soft tissue

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29 The Trifecta

30 The Penetrating Neck Trauma Trifecta Vascular Airway Esophagus

31 Penetrating neck trauma Diagnosis Vascular injury Laryngotracheal injury Pharynx/esophagus injury Signs and symptoms Shock Hematoma Hemorrhage Pulse deficit Neurologic deficit Bruit or thrill in neck Subcutaneous emphysema Airway obstruction Sucking wound Hemoptysis Dyspnea Stridor Hoarseness or dysphonia Subcutaneous emphysema Hematemesis Dysphagia or odynophagia

32 Penetrating neck trauma Diagnosis Vascular injury Laryngotracheal injury Pharynx/esophagus injury Signs and symptoms Shock Hematoma Hemorrhage Pulse deficit Neurologic deficit Bruit or thrill in neck Subcutaneous emphysema Airway obstruction Sucking wound Hemoptysis Dyspnea Stridor Hoarseness or dysphonia Subcutaneous emphysema Hematemesis Dysphagia or odynophagia

33 Penetrating neck trauma Diagnosis Vascular injury Laryngotracheal injury Pharynx/esophagus injury Signs and symptoms Shock Hematoma Hemorrhage Pulse deficit Neurologic deficit Bruit or thrill in neck Subcutaneous emphysema Airway obstruction Sucking wound Hemoptysis Dyspnea Stridor Hoarseness or dysphonia Subcutaneous emphysema Hematemesis Dysphagia or odynophagia

34 Penetrating Neck Wounds

35 The Traumatic Airway Case Presentations Anatomy Mechanism of Injury Penetrating Blunt Iatrogenic Inhalation Management Summary

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37 Anatomy / Zone III Lies above the angle of the mandible Contains the internal and external carotid arteries, the vertebral artery, and several cranial nerves Vascular and cranial nerve injuries common

38 Anatomy / Zone II Bound inferiorly by the cricoid and superiorly by the angle of the mandible Contains the larynx, pharynx, base of tongue, carotid artery and jugular vein, phrenic, vagus, and hypoglossal nerves Injuries here are seldom occult Common site of carotid injury

39 Anatomy / Zone I Bound superiorly by the cricoid and inferiorly by the sternum and clavicles Contains the subclavian arteries and veins, the dome of the pleura, esophagus, great vessels of the neck, recurrent nerve, trachea Signs of significant injury may be hidden from inspection in the mediastinum or chest

40 Blunt Mechanism Laryngeal Injuries Trachea can be injured from violent compression, along with the esophagus, against the cervical spine front-on collision by the seat belt, and sometimes, by the sudden increase of intratracheal pressure against a closed glottis caused by the improper use of the seat belt

41 Blunt Mechanism Laryngeal Injuries Physical Exam Findings pain on palpation Hemoptysis subcutaneous emphysema Stridor

42 Blunt Mechanism Tracheal Injuries Neck hyperextension can result in tracheal tears paramedian vertical fractures of the larynx and trachea complete laryngo-tracheal separation direct blows usually injure the thyroid and cricoid cartilages Trachea injury from a combination of hyperextension and direct blow

43 Blunt Mechanism main stem or bronchial Injuries

44 Blunt Mechanism Main stem and Bronchial Injuries

45 Blunt Mechanism Main stem and Bronchial Injuries Signs found amongst patients with tracheobronchial injury Number % Manifestations 6 (43%) Subcutaneous Emphysema 6 (43%) Air Bubbling from the Wound 5 (36%) Dyspnea 3 (21.5%) Dysphonia 3 (21.5%) Altered Mental Status 3 (21.5%) Visible Tracheal Movement 2 (14.3%) Hemoptysis 2 (14.3%) Dysphagia 2 (14.3%) Hemodynamic Instability 1 (7%) Cyanosis Major Airways Trauma, Management and Long Term Results Ann Thoracic Cardiovascular Surgery 2011; 17: ; Roya Farzanegan, et al

46 Blunt Mechanism Main stem and Bronchial Injuries

47 The most common CT characteristics of blunt main stem bronchial injuries were: subcutaneous emphysema (A), pneumothorax (B) and pulmonary atelectasis (C). Fibrobronchoscopy provides the site, size, and extends of injury (Black arrow) in right main bronchus (A,B) and in left main bronchus (C,D). J Thorac Dis Jan; 9(1):

48 Blunt main stem injury Three theories have been reported account for the mechanism of blunt main stem bronchial injuries 1. Shearing force increases at the cricoid cartilage and carina 2. Development of tensile force due to antero-posterior compression of the chest 3. Potential reflex closure of glottis while intrathoracic pressure is rising suddenly

49 Blunt Mechanism Main stem and Bronchial Injuries

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51 The Traumatic Airway Case Presentations Anatomy Mechanism of Injury Penetrating Blunt Iatrogenic Inhalation Management Summary

52 Iatrogenic?

53 Iatrogenic Airway Trauma Percutaneous Tracheostomy

54 Iatrogenic Airway Trauma Percutaneous versus Open Tracheostomy No statistical difference between percutaneous versus open regarding perioperative or post-op complication rate even up to 20 months

55 Iatrogenic Airway Trauma Percutaneous Tracheostomy: Utility of bronchoscopy?

56 Iatrogenic Airway Trauma

57 Iatrogenic Airway Trauma

58 The Traumatic Airway Case Presentations Anatomy Mechanism of Injury Penetrating Blunt Iatrogenic Inhalation Management Summary

59 11, % 343 v 1,876

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61 Inhalation injury? Confined space Mental status changes, +LOC Burns to face, neck, or chest Singed brows or nasal hair Carbonaceous sputum Pharyngeal edema Loss of voice, stridor

62 Airway Injury Mucosal edema Decreased surfactant Bronchospasm Pulmonary capillary leak Mucosal sloughing Pneumonia

63 The Traumatic Airway Case Presentations Anatomy Mechanism of Injury Management Pre-hospital Emergency Department Operating Room Summary

64 Goals and Objectives Case Presentations Anatomy Mechanism of Injury Management Pre-hospital Emergency Department Operating Room Summary

65 Prehospital Setting and History Obtain history from witnesses and patient Mechanisms of injury - stab wounds, gunshot wound, high-energy, low-energy, trajectory of stab Estimate of blood loss at scene Any associated thoracic, abdominal, extremity injuries Neurologic history

66 Prehospital Setting and History Trauma Identified Is there airway compromise? Is there respiratory distress? Unstable or stable patient?

67 Prehospital Setting and History Trauma Identified Is there airway compromise? Is there respiratory distress? Unstable or stable patient? Definitive Airway attempt?

68 Prehospital Airway Challenges and Solutions for Paramedics Journal of Critical Care Medicine 2014 database Paramedics in this system have the capability to administer neuromuscular blocking agents to facilitate intubation (i.e., rapid sequence intubation) N = 7,523 patients >12 y/o in whom paramedics attempted prehospital endotracheal intubation.

69 Prehospital Airway Challenges and Solutions for Paramedics Endotracheal intubation was successful on the first attempt in 77% and ultimately successful in 99% of patients (7,433 of 7,523) RSI method used 54% on first attempts of intubation Why is no airway established? - bodily fluids obstructing the laryngeal view 50% - obesity 28% - patient positioning 17% - Face or spine trauma 6%

70 Prehospital Airway Challenges and Solutions for Paramedics Adjustments for intubation success? - upper airway suctioning - patient repositioning (38%) - rescue bougie use (19%) - operator change (16%) - rescue rapid sequence intubation (6%) - Surgical cricothyrotomy 0.4%, (n = 27) - bag-valve-mask ventilation (0.8%, n = 60)

71 Position, patient and mechanism GCS? Anxiety Large teeth or claws? Talking? Breath sounds?

72 Prehospital TRAUMATIC Airway A bigger Challenge and minimal solutions for Paramedics Airway Stabilization

73 The principals of all trauma surgery care starts with.

74 The Traumatic Airway Case Presentations Anatomy Mechanism of Injury Management Pre-hospital Emergency Department Operating Room Summary

75 The principals of all trauma surgery care.

76 Initial management

77 Airway Stabilization Emergency Department be prepared to obtain an airway emergently Know your equipment and guidelines/protocols intubation or cricothyrotomy must assume cervical spine injury until proven otherwise

78 Airway Stabilization can we standardize our approach? Hypothesis: the use of a standardized RSI medication protocol has facilitated endotracheal intubation requiring less medication redosing and less medication-related hypotension N = 439 no protocol = 266 protocol RSI = 173 Simplified RSI to: ketamine 2 mg/kg iv and rocuronium 1 mg/kg iv, or succinylcholine 1.5 mg/kg iv

79 Airway Stabilization No protocol in the ED setting resulted in: Higher rates of medication redosing Longer administration times J Trauma Acute Care Surg Dec;73(6): A standardized rapid sequence intubation protocol facilitates airway management in critically injured patients. Ballow et al

80 Airway Management in Trauma what about the literature? Apnea GCS < 9 or sustained seizure activity Potential unstable facial fractures Large flail segment or respiratory failure Inability to otherwise maintain an airway or oxygenation Traumatic Airway

81 Airway Stabilization Updated 2012 EAST guidelines Characterize the patients in need of endotracheal intubation (ETI) Delineate the most appropriate procedure for patients undergoing ETI Method: Reviewed 69 publications

82 Airway Stabilization Updated 2012 EAST guidelines the need for oxygenation and ventilation the extent and mechanism of injury predicted operative need or progression of disease Rapid sequence intubation with direct laryngoscopy continues to be the recommended method for ETI blind insertion supraglottic devices and video laryngoscopy may be useful in facilitating successful ETI and may be preferred in certain patient populations There is no pharmacologic induction agent of choice for ETI; however, succinylcholine is the neuromuscular blockade agent recommended for rapid sequence intubation

83 Updated 2012 EAST guidelines Procedure Recommendations Bag-valve mask ventilation Laryngoscopy Surgical airway The application of structured assessment tools (e.g., the LEMON law) is recommended When significant difficulty is anticipated, neuromuscular blockade should be used with caution, and airway rescue devices, including surgical airway equipment, should be immediately available

84 Airway Stabilization ATLS recommendations L: Look externally E: Evaluate M: Mallampati score O: Obstruction N: Neck mobility Kortbeek JB, Turki SA, Ali J, et al.. Advanced trauma life support, 8th edition, the evidence of change. J Trauma. 2008; 64:

85 Airway Stabilization ATLS recommendations L: Look externally E: M: O: N:

86 Airway Stabilization ATLS recommendations L: E: Evaluate the rule M: O: N:

87 Airway Stabilization ATLS recommendations L: E: M: Mallampati score O: N:

88 Airway Stabilization ATLS recommendations L: E: M: O: Obstruction N: Kortbeek JB, Turki SA, Ali J, et al.. Advanced trauma life support, 8th edition, the evidence of change. J Trauma. 2008; 64:

89 Airway Stabilization ATLS recommendations L: E: M: O: N: Neck mobility

90 Video laryngoscopy Updated 2012 EAST guidelines Superior views of the glottis Higher intubation success rates for patients with anatomically difficult airways, in obese patients, and in those with the cervical spine held in-line Higher intubation success rates by inexperienced airway providers.

91 Airway Stabilization Updated 2012 EAST guidelines When ETI can not be achieved?

92 Management of Inhalation Injuries Confined space Mental status changes, +LOC Burns to face, neck, or chest Singed brows or nasal hair Carbonaceous sputum Pharyngeal edema or blistering Loss of voice, stridor

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94 The Traumatic Airway Case Presentations Anatomy Mechanism of Injury Management Pre-hospital Emergency Department Operating Room Summary

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96 German study reported a total of 1,033 tracheal injuries over a 5-year period 429 of these were non-iatrogenic blunt trauma 276 penetrating wounds 94, bullet wounds 16 other etiologies of these injuries were iatrogenic endotracheal intubation/mechanical ventilation 372 dilatational tracheostomy 181 endoscopic interventions 51

97 Manage conservatively if lesion is relatively small adequately controlled with thoracostomy tube drainage overall no respiratory or hemodynamic compromise

98 Principles of Traumatic Airway Management ETI past the lesion to oxygenate and ventilate

99 Operating Room Management A, B, Cs Initial ATLS protocol Exclude other life threatening injuries Direct laryngoscopy Video assisted intubation Nasal pharyngeal fiberoptic Oral video scope Fiberoptic intubation

100 Cricothyrotomy Operating Room Management say no to cric

101 Principles of Traumatic Airway Management If ETI can not be achieved.surgical airway past the lesion Atlas of Human Anatomy, 4 th Edition Frank H Netter

102 Airway Repair Surgical approaches cervical incision Thoracotomy Sternotomy clamshell incision

103 Surgical Approaches tracheal injury

104 Surgical Approaches tracheal separation ECMO cannulas placed preoperatively Low cervical collar incision Anterior dissection of trachea and devitalized tissue removed Distal flexible tracheostomy tube placed below level of repair

105 Principles of Traumatic Airway Management Ventilation Head maintained in flexion position Spontaneous ventilation Minimize positive pressure ventilation Pressure controlled ventilation High frequency ventilation (an option) Atlas of Human Anatomy, 4 th Edition Frank H Netter

106 Surgical Approaches Main bronchial injuries selective intubation of the non-injured main bronchus is usually performed Patient in left lateral decubitus position injuries are repaired more often through a right posterolateral thoracotomy in the fourth intercostal space

107 Surgical Repair of Iatrogenic Injuries

108 Innovative Airway Repairs

109 The Traumatic Airway Case Presentations Anatomy Mechanism of Injury Initial Management Summary

110 Summary

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