Lecture overview: motivation and emotion

Transcription

1 What do you want?

2 Lecture overview: motivation and emotion Instincts and drives Intrinsic motivation Maslow s hierarchy of needs Hunger and eating Sexual behaviour Emotions Basic expressions Subjective reactions

3 Theories of motivation: Instinct theory Instinct theory suggested people did things because of instincts early psychologists, like McDougall (1910) postulated a whole host of human instincts: e.g., - a man washing his hands was impelled by the 'Instinct of Cleanliness' woman buying pencil was motivated by 'Instinct of Acquisitiveness'

4 Theories of motivation: Internal factors Instinct theory (cont.) MacDougall s Instinct theory was not useful No evidence of an innate basis to these socalled instincts And calling these behaviours instincts didn't help us understand why people washed their hands -Labeling behavior does not explain it This is called the nominal fallacy

5 So if instinct theory doesn t explain much, where did psychologists go next?

6 Drive theory Theories of motivation: Drive theory Suggests that basic biological needs create unpleasant states such as hunger, thirst, etc., and that we seek to eliminate these feelings and restore homeostasis (a balanced physiological state) Psychologists also theorized drives for less physiological needs: e.g., drives for status, power, etc.

7 Theories of motivation: Drive theory (cont.) Drive theory not fully accepted today. One problem is that people will sometimes seek to increase rather than reduce their drives: Not eat (for variety of reasons) Purposely opt out of status hierarchies

8 The next step in explaining why people do what they do

9 Theories of motivation: Intrinsic motivation Many activities are performed for the sheer pleasure of them, not for any external rewards We refer to these activities as intrinsically motivated Examples? Seifert s 2006 study on skateboarders FLOW

10 Theories of motivation: Intrinsic motivation (cont.) However if people receive external motivations for something intrinsically motivating, they become less motivated. Why? Apparently because they change their selfperception of why they are performing the activity

11 Theories of motivation: Intrinsic motivation (cont.) However, motivation can still remain high or even be enhanced when intrinsically rewarding activities are rewarded externally (e.g., by money) if several conditions are met: Choice as to what external rewards External rewards perceived as recognition rather than bribes External rewards large and satisfying

12 Intrinsic motivation: beyond basic psychology Shelley s addition to all of this: Guess what? This is another area where not all psychologists are in agreement Social psychologists layer needs for social approval into the mix Educational psychologists study motivation in a whole different way intrinsic motivation is part of it, but only a small part. Why? In school, students have to do assignments in order to pass no choice (other than pass/fail) Improving or enhancing motivation in this context goes way beyond extrinsic/intrinsic and motivation is studied in the context of how it influences learning.

13 Motivation Hey, wait (says someone out there) Motivation is more than do I get a reward or not! Why do people go to work? Keep trying to make a relationship work? Continue talking to their teenagers even when everyone is driving everyone else crazy? How do you explain that?

14 Theories of motivation: Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs Self-actualization needs Need to live up to one s fullest and unique potential Esteem needs Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others Belongingness and love needs Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation Safety needs Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable Then psychological needs become active Then higher-level safety needs become active Begins at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied Physiological needs Need to satisfy hunger and thirst

15 Theories of motivation: Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs Self-actualization needs Need to live up to one s fullest and unique potential Esteem needs Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others Belongingness and love needs Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation Maslow believed needs were innate, although most of the ways that they must be gratified are learned. Failure to gratify a need will result in psychological or physical dysfunction The need will remain important to the person until it is satisfied Safety needs Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable Physiological needs Need to satisfy hunger and thirst

16 Maslow s needs: Estimated Percentage of People Who Have Satisfied Needs at Each Level

17 Self-Actualizing VS Money: Generational Differences Percentage rating goal as very important or essential Being very well-off financially Developing a meaningful life philosophy Year

18 Pull out a piece of paper

19 Self Actualizing Scale Respond agree; somewhat agree; somewhat disagree; disagree to each of the following statements 1. I do not feel ashamed of any of my emotions. 2. I feel I must do what others expect me to do. 3. I believe that people are essentially good and can be trusted. 4. I feel free to be angry to those I love. 5. It is always necessary that others approve of what I do. 6. I don't accept my own weaknesses. 7. I can like people without having to approve of them. 8. I fear failure. 9. I avoid attempts to analyze and simplify complex domains 10. It is better to be yourself than to be popular. 11. I have no mission in life to which I feel especially dedicated. 12. I can express my feelings even when they may result in undesirable consequences. 13. I do not feel responsible to help anybody. 14. I am bothered by fears of being inadequate. 15. I am loved because I give love.

20 To score Self-actualizing Scale: for items 1, 3, 4, 7, 10, 12, 15, score your responses like this: agree = 3 somewhat agree = 2 somewhat disagree = 1 disagree = 0 for items 2, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14 score your responses like this: agree = 0 somewhat agree = 1 somewhat disagree = 2 disagree = 3 -maximum score is 45; minimum score is 0 -if you got 30 or above, you are high up on the selfactualizing dimension -if you got 15 or below, you are not very high on this dimension

21 Self-actualizers Self-actualizers according to Maslow: accept selves, others and nature attend more to problems outside self more effective perception of reality more spontaneous more comfortable with solitude and privacy more independence from culture and environment appreciates a variety of experiences more profound interpersonal experiences more philosophical sense of humor

22 Peak experiences One other aspect of Maslow's theory that is of interest: peak experiences Not validated by data, but an interesting idea Peak experiences are mystical experiences, feeling of awe, happiest moments wherein person feels at one with the world, in command of their own lives, spontaneous, perceptive, playful, self-determined Experience itself is transitory, yet effects are long lasting

23 Lasting Effects of Peak Experiences (according to Maslow) 1. Removal of neurotic symptoms (growth producing) 2. Tendency to view oneself in healthier way 3. Change in one's view of other people and of one's relationships with them 4. Change in one's view of the world 5. Release of creativity, spontaneity, expressiveness 6. Tendency to remember the experience and to try to duplicate it 7. Tendency to view life in general as more worthwhile

24 Back to being animals again Most of what we have just talked about relates to what is going on inside your head (in your adaptive mind let s say) as far as needs are concerned What about the motivation that biology sets in place for us?

25 What determines a Person s Weight? (Pp ) Set point: Natural body weight, perhaps produced by genetic factors, that the body seeks to maintain Weight loss below a person s set point is often regained Number of fat cells, metabolic rate may contribute to set point What causes obesity (excessive body fat)? Biological and psychological factors contribute, including set point, eating habits, stress levels

26 Hunger and eating How do we know how much to eat? Detector cells in the body provide information on levels of nutrients; especially glucose, protein and fat. These are the BIOLOGICAL triggers for feeling hungry or feeling full But important cues to feeling hungry/full also provided by how much you have chewed food, the smell and taste of food, and cultural and learned factors. These are the PSYCHOLOGICAL factors.

27 Hunger: Internal Factors (Pp ) Brain monitors stomach fullness, chemical signals Glucose (sugar) Insulin (hormone released by pancreas) Hypothalamus especially important for regulating hunger When ventrolateral hypothalamus lesioned, undereating/underweight results Other important regions: brain stem, hippocampus

28 Hunger: External Factors (Pp ) Eating habits involving times, places, kinds of food you re used to can affect food choices Includes cultural differences in eating customs Food cues can trigger eating as well, even when a person does not physically need food Includes sight, smell, past associations

29 Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa when a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve usually an adolescent female Bulimia Nervosa disorder characterized by private bingepurge episodes of overeating, usually of highly caloric foods, followed by vomiting or laxative use

30 Possible causes: Anorexia and bulimia Dissatisfaction with bodies; especially distorted body image? Thinnest Women s ideal What women believed men preferred What men actually preferred Women s current body image Fattest

31 Eating Disorders- Anorexia Nervosa when a person is less than 85% of their normal body weight 95% of sufferers are female (this statistic is changing, though) most are between the ages of % of persons diagnosed with anorexia nervosa die

32 Anorexia and bulimia (cont.) Possible causes (cont): Abnormal levels of growth hormones Pre-existing biochemical level predispose to anxiety conditions. Ethnic difference: 90% of white American teen females dissatisfied with bodies, but only 30% of African-American girls Any ideas why? Introduction of television to Polynesian culture example.

33 Anorexia and bulimia (cont.) Is there a body image issue/behaviour among teenage/young males that may be considered analogous to anorexia/bulimia in girls? Excessive weight training/body-building and accompanying drug abuse (steroids, etc.)

34 Motivation to you know

35 Choosing a Mate (Pp ) Our evolutionary history has likely left contemporary men and women with slightly differing mate selection, reflecting gender-specific adaptive problems For instance, are there any factors that men and women seem to value differently in choosing mates?

36 Cross-Cultural Mating Strategies (P. 447) Indispensable Physical Attractiveness Men Women Unimportant Indispensable Financial Prospects Unimportant Figure 11.3

37 Choosing a Mate (Pp ) Mate selection also strongly influenced by sociological and cultural factors Sexual scripts: Learned programs that instruct us on how, why and what to do in interactions with sexual partners Example: Do you expect sex to lead to marriage? These sexual scripts change over time, so they can be quite different for different generations, which may cause some parent-child conflict.

38 Sexual Orientation (Pp ) A person s sexual, emotional attraction to members of the same and/or opposite sex Includes homosexuality, heterosexuality, bisexuality

39 Fig Homosexuality and heterosexuality as endpoints on a continuum. Sex researchers view heterosexuality and homosexuality as falling on a continuum rather than make an all-or-none distinction. Kinsey and his associates (1948, 1953) created this seven-point scale (from 0 to 6) to describe people s sexual orientation. They used the term ambisexual to describe those who fall in the middle of the scale, but such people are commonly called bisexual today.

40 Fig How common is homosexuality? The answer to this question is both complex and controversial. Michaels (1996) brought together data from two large-scale surveys to arrive at the estimates shown here. If you look at how many people have actually had a same-sex partner in the last five years, the figures are relatively low, but if you count those who have had a same-sex partner since puberty the figures more than double. Still another approach is to ask people whether they are attracted to others of the same sex (regardless of their actual behavior). This approach suggests that about 8% of the population could be characterized as homosexual.

41 Sexual Orientation (Pp ) What factors determine sexual orientation? Likely some biological basis: Part of hypothalamus possibly larger in gay males If one identical twin is gay, 50% chance that other will also be (compared to what percent with fraternal twins? 11% Possibly some interaction with prenatal maternal immune system factors - e.g.,the more male babies a mother has, the more likely that the next one will be gay Most people who end up as gay or lesbian adults showed a higher than average level of crossgender activities as children

42 A neglected sexual orientation? Asexuality

43 Human Sexual Motivation: The Evolution of Human Mating Systems I am discussing the topic of the evolution of human mating systems for three reasons: 1. It is interesting, and explains a lot of puzzling aspects of human sexual/mating behaviour. 2. It illustrates the viewpoint of the modern descendant of 'Instinct' theory, which is one of the early viewpoints on motivation presented in your chapter. 3. It illustrates the history of very important human motivational systems: sexual motivation and motivation toward pairbonding.

44 Evolution of human mating Much of the reasoning presented here on the evolution of human mating systems comes from two books by an anthropologist at the American Museum of Natural History, Dr. Helen Fisher: The Sex Contract (1983) Anatomy of Love: The Natural History of Monogamy, Adultery and Divorce (1992)

45 Evolution of human mating (cont.) Dr. Fisher suggests the following evolutionary sequence: About 10 million years ago, the sexual and mating system of our ancestors was quite different than it is today. Humans female ancestors likely displayed an estrous cycle mating system. What does that mean? That females restricted their mating to a specific part of their reproductive cycle (the estrus phase). What is a common term for this? in heat During this phase, the females mated with several adult male members of a group, in a comparatively undiscriminating manner Do any contemporary mammals still do that? Dogs, cats, most primates

46 Evolution of human mating (cont.) These ancestors (called dryopithecines) probably did not form pair-bonds, and the males likely had no role in child care.

47 Evolution of human mating (cont.) Over time however, our female ancestors evolved to prefer mating with males who would give them and their offspring food, and who would stay with the female after mating. Figure: Australopithecus afarensis: 5 to 3 million years ago

48 Evolution of human mating (cont.) This female mating preference meant that males evolved (= their brains and bodies changed) to be more interested in pair-bonding and nurturing children than previous hominid males.

49 [Figure: Homo habilis: 2 million years ago] Evolution of human mating (cont.) Other consequences of this fundamental shift in hominid sexual/mating system include: Females becoming sexually receptive throughout the month and concealing ovulation. Both sexes becoming sexually jealous of their partners. Why would males be jealous; what do they have to lose? Their mates could have another man's child, and this would mean that the male would be reproducing fewer of his own genes (while possibly wasting his resources on offspring that were not his own).

50 Evolution of human mating (cont.) Should females in this system be jealous if their mate has other sexual partners? What do they have to lose? Females do not risk the possibility of investing in offspring who are not their own. But human females likely also evolved to feel sexual jealousy, because they may lose their mate's energy and provisions if he is in a sexual relationship with another female.

51 Evolution of human mating (cont.) Although both women and men evolved to desire a satisfying, committed pair-bond, both men and women evolved to also be interested in sex outside the pair-bond, but for somewhat different reasons. What did human male ancestors gain from having sex outside the pair bond? More offspring in the next generation carrying their genes

52 Evolution of human mating (cont.) Is it likely that human female ancestor evolved to desire sex outside the pair-bond? What would they have to gain? Not usually more offspring, but perhaps higher quality offspring or more resources for them, which would aid in their survival and reproduction.

53 Evolution of human mating (cont.) Fisher suggests human female ancestors may have evolved to choose between two alternative strategies to acquire resources: Some women elected to be relatively faithful to a single man because that strategy provided them with the optimum reproductive benefits. Others engaged in sexual relationships with many men which often resulted in the acquisition of resources from more than one partner.

54 Evolution of human mating Is it likely that humans evolved to be a monogamous species? No - humans apparently evolved to seek and maintain pair-bonds, but not to be completely monogamous. Both women and men apparently evolved to seek a satisfying sexual relationship with one other person (i.e., a pair bond), but then to consciously and unconsciously calculate the risks and benefits of pursuing sexual relationships outside the pair bond. However, humans can choose to be monogamous (i.e., have a long-term sexually exclusive relationship), and this is the mating system that most modern industrial cultures explicitly or implicitly endorse.

55 Evolutionary Perspective on Human Mating Strategies: Commentary Some important points to remember regarding an evolutionary view of human sexual motivation: Culture also plays an important role in shaping sex differences in human sexual behavior and attitudes, and many social scientists would suggest that many gender differences in sexual and mating behavior are caused by cultural pressures such as sexual stereotyping, not by evolved dispositions. Evolutionary or biological reasoning should not be used as an excuse for a double standard in sexual behavior. Evolution should not be used as an excuse for dishonest behaviour. Men and women have probably evolved somewhat different dispositions regarding sexual desires, but all non-pathological humans have the evolved capacity to make conscious decisions about their sexual behavior.

56 Emotions How you react to the world around you

57 Emotions (P. 449) Emotions are complex psychological events with several distinct components Physiological (body) response, usually arousal Expressive reaction, for example a facial expression Subjective experience, such as a feeling

58 The Components of Emotion (P.449) Figure 11.4

59 Theories of Emotion Does your heart pound because you are afraid... or are you afraid because you feel your heart pounding?

60 1? Theory of Emotion Experience of emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli Sight of oncoming car (perception of stimulus) Pounding heart (arousal) Fear (emotion)

61 2? Theory of Emotion Sight of oncoming car (perception of stimulus) Pounding heart (arousal) Fear (emotion) Emotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger: physiological responses subjective experience of emotion

62 3? Theory of Emotion Sight of oncoming car (perception of stimulus) Pounding heart (arousal) Cognitive label Fear (emotion= labeled arousal) To experience emotion one must: be physically aroused cognitively label the arousal I m afraid

63 James-Lange Theory of Emotion Experience of emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli James-Lange Theory Sight of oncoming car (perception of stimulus) Pounding heart (arousal) Fear (emotion)

64 Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion Cannon-Bard Theory Sight of oncoming car (perception of stimulus) Pounding heart (arousal) Fear (emotion) Emotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger: physiological responses subjective experience of emotion

65 Theories of Emotion (Pp ) What s the relationship between our bodily reactions and our subjective experience? Common sense suggests that the experience comes first... but psychologists question this James-Lange theory: Body reactions come first; they drive the subjective experience of emotion Cannon-Bard theory: Body reactions happen together, but independently

66 Schachter s Two Factor Schachter s Theory Theory of Emotion Sight of oncoming car (perception of stimulus) Pounding heart (arousal) Cognitive label Fear (emotion= labeled arousal) To experience emotion one must: be physically aroused cognitively label the arousal I m afraid

67 The Two-Factor Theory (Pp ) The cognitive interpretation, or appraisal, of a body reaction drives the subjective experience of emotion Schachter and Singer: How you experience the effects of a drug that increases arousal (epinephrine) depends on your appraisal Participants either led to expect effects of drug, or not, then exposed to an accomplice If no expectation that it s the drug > Person in the room can make you experience arousal as euphoria OR anger

68 The Schachter and Singer Experiment (P. 459)

69 So we have four theories of emotion, all of them subtly different.

70 Four Views of Emotion (P. 457)

71 Experiencing Emotions: Arousal and Polygraphs (Pp ) Measurable signs of arousal are the basis for polygraph tests Arousal compared for neutral (control) questions and possibly incriminating (relevant) questions e.g., Control Question Up to age 18, did you ever physically harm anyone? Relevant Question Did the deceased threaten to harm you in any way? Relevant > Control --> Lie

72 Emotion-Polygraphs Respiration Perspiration Heart rate Control question Relevant question (a) Control question Relevant question (b)

73 Emotion-Polygraphs Percentage Innocents Thieves 1/3 of innocent declared guilty Innocent people Guilty people 1/4 of guilty declared innocent (from Kleinmuntz & Szucko, 1984) Judged innocent by polygraph Judged guilty by polygraph

74 Emotion- Polygraphs and Arousal (Pp ) Measurable signs of arousal are the basis for polygraph tests Problems: Can be beaten by people who know how to manipulate arousal; produce a high proportion of false positives

75 Experiencing Emotions: Arousal (Pp ) Does physiological arousal help or hurt performance? Best performance when arousal is neither very low or very high

76 Emotion- Polygraphs Is 70% accuracy good? Assume 5% of 1000 employees actually guilty test all employees 285 will be wrongly accused What about 95% accuracy? Assume 1 in 1000 employees actually guilty test all employees (including 999 innocents) 50 wrongly declared guilty 1 of 51 testing positive are guilty (2%)

77 Emotion- Lie Detection Wizards (Pp ) So if polygraphs are not particularly good at detecting lies, what or who is? Maureen O Sullivan tested 13,000 people for the ability to detect deception by showing subjects videotapes of people being questioned in a variety of situations. She found 31, who she calls wizards, who are usually able to tell whether the person is lying, whether the lie is about an opinion, how someone is feeling or about a theft. Detect two categories of cues: Inappropriate microexpressions Thinking cues - e.g. hesitations when making something up

78 Emotion- Lie Detection Wizards (cont) Men and women are about equal among the 31 wizards They practice detecting lies (like athletes). About 20 percent to 30 percent reported some sort of childhood trauma, such as alcoholism in the family or a highly emotional mother, perhaps leading them to screen for emotional clues from childhood. Attorneys and secret service agents are wellrepresented among the wizards (FBI and CIA only average). Police officers tend to be above average in cases involving crimes but not in emotional situations, she said, while therapists were just the opposite.

79 Nonverbal Communication Crusco & Wetzel (1984) study on touching: Waitresses asked to treat customers three different ways re touching customers: 1. No touch 2. Touch briefly on hand. 3. Longer touch on shoulder.

80 Nonverbal Communication (cont.) Results: Both a half-second touch on hand and 1.5 second touch on shoulder resulted in larger tips. Evidence that non-threatening touching can have positive effects.