Behaviorism. especially in the United States as it did from the 1920s or so until the 1960s? It was a

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1 1 Behaviorism The core of behaviorism is Do this and you ll get that. The wisdom of this technique is very rarely held up for inspection; all that is open to question is what exactly people will receive and under what circumstances it will be promised and delivered. We take for granted that this is the logical way to raise children, teach students, and manage employees (Kohn 3). Behaviorism has been around for years, yet some may not have realized that it has a name. Behaviorism was actually the first psychology that looked at human behavior and how humans actually learned. Behaviorism is a very popular way of conditioning that has been proven time and time again in all aspects of our world. Where did such an extreme view originate, and how did it come to dominate psychology especially in the United States as it did from the 1920s or so until the 1960s? It was a rejection of structuralism and its subjectivity, of psychoanalytic theory s often-murky observables, and of functionalism s emphasis upon the conscious mind (Baucum 7). Behaviorism, while not considered an educational philosophy, is most often recognized as a psychological theory about human behavior and learning. In their studies, behaviorists focus only on observable human behavior and discount mental processes. They believe that all behavior is learned, and they believe that new learning is a result of acquiring new behavior patterns by means of environmental conditioning (Ozmon & Craver 208). Although behaviorism totally ignores thought processes, it does consider positive and negative reinforcement to encourage and produce desired behavior. Behaviorism and its main ideas can be characterized as a type of psychology that examines the overt, observable actions and reactions of an individual. Instead of looking at the mind, behaviorists study the unbiased, environmental conditions that influence a person s

2 2 behavior. Behaviorism holds that the subject matter of human psychology is the behavior of the human being. Behaviorism claims that consciousness is neither a definite nor a usable concept. The behaviorist, who has been trained always as an experimentalist, holds, further, that belief in the existence of consciousness goes back to the ancient days of superstition and magic (Watson 2). Behavior theorists define learning as a more or less permanent change in behavior. Behaviorists believe that human behavior can be understood by studying particular behaviors. Behaviorists think human traits such as personality, character, and integrity are not internally determined by each individual, but are the results of behaving in certain ways and are established through behavior patterns which are developed through environmental conditioning (Ozmon & Craver 208). Behaviorists also believe that we have no right to project our feelings or ideas onto the subjects that we investigate. For example, if a person gives a piece of meat to a dog, it is legitimate to describe the dog s behavior (i.e., the animal jumps up, drools, opens its mouth, and eats the meat). However, it is not legitimate to say that the dog likes the meat since that projects the attitudes or feelings of the human onto the dog, and there is no evidence to support the statement (Pulliam & Van Patten 169). Behaviorism started back in 400 B.C. with Aristotle and was the most dominant learning theory in the first half of the 20 th century. Behaviorism has roots in several philosophical traditions. It is grounded in realism, especially the materialistic brand, which maintains that behavior is caused by environmental conditions. Instead of concentration on mind or consciousness, behaviorists look at observable facts, capable of empirical verification (Pulliam & Van Patten 38). Ivan Pavlov, ( ) considered to be the father of the conditioning theory, strongly influenced the behaviorist movement by his studies of conditioned reflexes in humans and

3 3 animals (Gray 2). Born in pre-soviet Russia, he was an eminent experimental psychologist and physiologist. He found that when a bell is rung each time a dog is fed, the dog is conditioned to associate the sound of the bell with food. Consequently, when the bell is sounded, the dog physiologically anticipates food. Pavlov was also a strong opponent, throughout his life, of the Freudian interpretation of neuroses (Ozmon & Craver 210). Pavlov considered only conditioned reflex behavior, whereas modern behaviorists use operant conditioning that includes action on the part of the organism being conditioned. The organism can act to change its environment, and the resulting changes reinforce the behavior of the organism in some way. The modern view tends more toward a two-way flow, while Pavlov showed it only one way. Nevertheless, his pioneering was of crucial importance (Ozmon & Craver 210). Edward Lee Thorndike ( ) began a series of learning experiments with animals. After a series of trial and error activities, the animal would chance upon the solution that released food. Further trials in the same puzzle box resulted in the animal s making the proper response more rapidly than at first. This led Thorndike to his law of effect, which he also extended to human activity. He found a very strong effect from rewards but also discovered that punishment was a less effective means for the control of behavior. Following Pavlov s lead, Thorndike assumed a connection between stimuli and responses. If stimulus A is known to be associated with response B, repeat A until B is produced without hesitation whenever A occurs. Teachers rapidly accepted Thorndike s laws of learning, which they found to be highly useful devices for classroom instruction (Pulliam & Van Patten 169).

4 4 Thorndike was one of the first to understand that education and psychology were closely linked. Psychology forms the foundation for the science of education, and schools furnish subjects and data sources for psychological research (Pulliam & Van Patten 169). John B. Watson, ( ) considered the Founder of Behaviorism, repudiated the introspective method in psychology as delusive and unscientific. He relied solely on an observational technique restricted to behavior. He believed that fears are conditioned responses to the environment. In experiments, he conditioned people to be fearful and then deconditioned them. He thought of the environment as the primary shaper of behavior and maintained that if he could control a child s environment he could then engineer that child into any kind of person desired (Ozmon & Craver 211). In an experiment to prove his point on the matter, Watson performed an interesting experiment. After studying infants at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Watson stated, that if he were given a child with a healthy body, he could mold that child into any kind of expert he chose. He said: Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, to bring them up in any way I choose and I ll guarantee you to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors (Hamachek 18). Watson held that environment is far more important than heredity in the determination of human behavior. He rejected innate ideas and most instincts. His experiments with infants caused him to conclude that almost all emotional responses are learned. Watson held that if the environment could be strictly controlled, any normal child could be raised to be a mechanic, an athlete, a professional person, or a thief (Pulliam & Van Patten 170). Watson believed that psychology should be confined to those activities that could be verified by an outside observer (Pulliam & Van Patten 169). He also thought that psychologists

5 5 should study only directly observable behavior, not mental processes and consciousness (Staddon 4). Watson argued that animals, including humans, will work toward things that aid their survival and reproduction (ex: food, water, sex) and avoid things that harm them. He believed that humans were simply more complicated than animals but operated on the same principles. He was responsible for many experiments some of which included animals and humans (i.e. Kerplunk Experiment and the experiment involving Baby Albert). Watson was very influential, and the strong movement in American psychology toward behaviorism is often directly attributed to him (Ozmon & Craver 211). Born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, Burrhus Frederic Skinner ( ) taught psychology at the University of Minnesota and Indiana University before returning to Harvard, where he had taken his Ph.D. Earning a reputation as one of the most important contemporary psychologists, his work on animal behavior is a major contribution to knowledge (Pulliam & Van Patten 38). Skinner believed that the importance lies in human behavior and how it makes us what we are. Perhaps the most accurate description of Skinner s view is that we are both controller and controlled. Another way of putting it is that, in a very real sense, we are our own makers (Ozmon & Craver 217). He believed that reinforcement follows behavior; it does not precede it (even though most human behavior is conditioned by previous reinforcement) (Ozmon & Craver 214). Behavior develops in directions that are positively reinforced; consequently, we should be controlling, devising, or using contingences that reinforce desired behaviors. Skinner thought that if we want to change culture or individuals, we must change behavior, and the way to change behavior is to change the contingencies (i.e. culture or social environment) (Ozmon &

6 6 Craver 214). Skinner took the possibilities of his theories into the area of social and cultural reform. He saw behavioral engineering as applicable on a global scale, maintaining that it is possible to solve problems of hunger, warfare, and economic upheaval if we will do so through the development of technology of behavior (Ozmon & Craver 228). Although best known for his programmed instruction derived from the principles of operant conditioning based on laboratory experiments with animals, Skinner has moved behavioral engineering into the realm of utopian planning, the nature of humankind, social values and a definition of the good life (Pulliam & Van Patten 38). Many people argue that the aim of behavioral engineering is to turn out robots, people who are at the beck and call of others who control them. Skinner countered that this is not true; for when we look around at our present world, we find that most people are controlled by forces of which they are unconscious (Ozmon & Craver 223). People act to improve the world and to progress toward a better way of life for good reasons, and among the reasons are certain consequences of their behavior, and among these consequences are the things people value and call good (Skinner 103). A person s behavior is at least to some extent his own achievement. He is free to deliberate, decide, and act, possibly in original ways, and he is to be given credit for his successes and blamed for his failures. In the scientific view (and the word is not necessarily honorific) a person s behavior is determined by a genetic endowment traceable to the evolutionary history of the species and by the environmental circumstances to which as an individual he has been exposed (Skinner 101). Neither view can be proved, but it is in the nature of scientific inquiry that the evidence should shift in favor of the second. As we learn more about the effects of the environment, we have less reason to attribute any part of human

7 7 behavior to autonomous controlling agent. And the second view shows a marked advantage when we begin to do something about behavior (Skinner 102). Autonomous man is not easily changed; in fact, to the extent that he is autonomous, he is by definition not changeable at all. But the environment can be changed, and we are learning how to change it (Skinner 103). Skinner was a strong advocate of education, although many critics argue that what he meant by education is not education but training (Ozmon & Craver 223). Skinner charged that much of what passes for education is not good education because it is not reinforcing, it does not properly motivate students to progress, and does not deal with immediate reinforcement. Skinner thought that one of the most effective kinds of instruction may be done through the use of teaching machines, including small computers. He is often referred to as the father of the teaching machine and has done significant research in this area. The questions in a teaching machine are interrelated and are usually arranged in sequences of increasing complexity. Skinner thought that learning should take place in small steps and succeeding questions should have some relationship to the preceding ones. He preferred that students have nothing by success (Ozmon & Craver 225). Skinner recommended the use of programmed instruction, which is simply a system of breaking down information into small parts and organizing it in a way that students can understand. While teaching machines are not necessary, Skinner believed that the computer is the best teaching machine because students are actively involved in their work and are not passive. Furthermore, students can work at their own pace through carefully selected instructional programs that provide immediate feedback as reinforcement (Bigge & Shermis 111).

8 8 Many critics charge that Skinner s theories belittle and limit humanity, but there is a strong argument that his views are optimistic, holding the promise that we can become practically anything through proper behavioral engineering. The principles of behaviorism and the techniques of behavioral engineering go back at least to Pavlov and Watson, but B.F. Skinner pioneered their implementation in many fields of contemporary life. Skinner saw behaviorism extending into politics, economics, and other social organizations. He strongly championed it as an educational method that is more practical and produces greater results than any other (Ozmon & Craver 221). Skinner viewed the educational processes as one of the chief ways of designing a culture, and his attention was also directed at numerous other institutions. He believed that positive reinforcement can induce us to begin to alter and control our schools and other institutions. It has grown in popularity and is used frequently, particularly in areas of special education and with disadvantaged children (Ozmon & Craver 221). Although many people disapprove of the concept of behavioral engineering, it has increasingly become part of our educational process. One might even argue that conditioning has always gone on in education, though it has not been labeled as such. Teachers have conditioned students to sit up straight and to be quiet through looks, grades, and physical punishment (Ozmon & Craver 221). Behaviorism has been increasingly used in education since the 1960s, and many educators are zealous supporters of the behavioral techniques that they are using in their classroom. Behaviorism is based on the assumption that teachers can adequately describe what people do in terms of observable behaviors and that these behaviors are acquired through experience via simple conditioning or learning (Jacobsen 31). The behaviorist model is extremely mechanistic a concept of teaching based on the use of measurement (testing) to

9 9 determine deficiencies and accomplishments and the use of reinforcement to teach specific objectives (Spring 321). In such areas as special education, teachers find the concept of immediate reinforcement particularly useful in controlling and directing children with motor and mental handicaps (Ozmon & Craver 228). Behaviorists view the child as a highly conditioned organism even before entering school. Whatever has gone on before, including contradiction in the values exhibited by parents or the environmental control of institutions such as churches, will have an impact on the school environment. Since teachers must engage in the modification of behavior, it is important that they know what goals they wish to achieve and how to reach them with efficiency. Skinner does not see this process as evil but as a means for expanding possibilities and developing a preference for a better kind of civilization (Pulliam & Van Patten 39). Many people see education and conditioning as two different things. Education presumably represents a free mind being exposed to ideas that one may look upon critically and accept or not accept, whereas conditioning is seen to represent the implementation of certain specific ideas in the pupil s mind with or without her critical consent. Skinner, however, drew no distinction between education and conditioning. He did not feel that the mind is free to begin with. Whatever kinds of critical judgment or acceptance of ideas students make are already predicated on ideas with which they have been previously conditioned (Ozmon & Craver 222). Obviously, there are many strengths of behaviorism for it to be so admired. Behaviorism clearly states one s objectives, which allows the learner to focus on one goal. The success of the desired outcome is easily measurable and specific learning is guaranteed. Cueing responses to behavior allows the learner to react in a predictable way under certain conditions. A big strength of behaviorism and the resulting social learning and social cognitive theories are their ease of

10 10 application to real world examples. Information gathered for learning theories such as these are often represented by statistics and facts, rather than theoretical concepts and ideas. Therefore, applying them and measuring the outcome is much simpler. In spite of behaviorism s popularity and success, there are many criticisms against it. It is said that behaviorism sees the human being as an automaton instead of a creature of will and purpose. Critics believe that behaviorism limits one s retention unless it is reinforced. Behavior or responses are reinforced by repetition, as well as positive and negative reinforcers. However, it is very difficult for a single educator to appropriately and individually reinforce thirty or more learners at the same time. Critics claim that behaviorism limits one s learning by association. The learner sees much of the information as irrelevant to his everyday life. Students are unable to put the pieces together and apply them to other situations. It is also said that a negative side to behaviorism is that the learner is usually externally motivated. Motivation for correctly responding to a stimulus is directly related to the time between the response and the reinforcement. After discovering the many regions of behaviorism, the writer discovered that behaviorism is found in the core of parenting, education, the military, as well as the work force. Our world is constantly changing, however one thing seems to remain the same. We are all conditioned one way or another. Humans, as well as animals, seem to follow certain guidelines that have been programmed into their being. As Watson argued, humans, as well as animals, will do what they have to do to survive and avoid things that will hurt them. Why does this happen? It all relates to BEHAVIORISM!

11 11 Works Cited Baucum, Don. The Origins of Behaviorism. Behavioral and Social Science:Psychology. New York: Barron s Educational Series, Inc., Bigge, Morris L., and S. Samuel Shermis. Learning Theories for Teachers. 5 th ed. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc., Gray, Jeffrey A. Ivan Pavlov. New York: The Viking Press, Hamachek, Don. Psychology in Teaching, Learning, and Growth. 4 th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Jacobsen, David A. Behaviorism in the Classroom. Philosophy in Classroom Teaching: Bridging the Gap. 2 nd ed. New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall, Kohn, Alfie. Skinner-Boxed: The Legacy of Behaviorism. Punished by Rewards: The Trouble with Gold Stars, Incentive Plans, A s, Praise, and Other Bribes. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, Ozmon, Howard, and Samuel Craver. Behaviorism and Education. Philosophical Foundations of Education, 5 th ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Pulliam, J. D., and Van Patten, J. J. History of Education in America. 7 th ed. New Jersy: Merrill Prentice Hall, Skinner, B. F. Beyond Freedom and Dignity. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., Spring, Joel. The American School New York: Longman Inc., Staddon, John. The New Behaviorism: Mind, Mechanism, and Society. Philadelphia: Psychology Press, Watson, John B. Behaviorism. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1930.

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