The negative reinforcing functions of nonconformity*

Transcription

1 Memry & Cgnitin 1974, Vl. 2 (4), The negative reinfrcing functins f nncnfrmity* JEFFREY A. SEYBERT and ROBERT FRANK EISS University f Oklahma, Nrman, Oklahma Emplying the general apprach which Neal Miller called "extensin f liberalized S-R thery," tw experiments (N = 108) fund that Ss wuld learn an instrumental respnse, the reinfrcement fr which was the pprtunity t escape frm a situatin in which they were a nncnfrmist. hen the nncnfrmity situatins were presented n an intermittent basis, speed f the respnse was fund t be a functin f the percentage f nncnfrmity trials (p <.001). hen the pprtunity t escape was delayed (0, 1.5, r 3 sec), respnse acquisitin was fund t be an inverse functin f the length f the delay (p <.001). The results f bth experiments crrespnd t data cllected in instrumental escape cnditining experiments n delay f reinfrcement and intermittent shck using similar prcedures. A number f investigatrs have shwn that cnfrmity and nncnfrmity behavirs may be analyzed within a cnditining framewrk (e.g., Endler, 1965, 1966; Endler & Hy, 1967; Jnes, ells, & Trrey, 1958; Tlman & Barnsley, 1966; alker & Heyns, 1966). These authrs, using cnfrmity and nncnfrmity behavirs as dependent variables, have demnstrated that these behavirs may be mdified by reinfrcement. hile the abve studies have examined the causes f cnfrmity-nncnfrmity behavirs, it may als be pssible t investigate the effects f a cnfrmity r nncnfrmity situatin n ther behavirs. Thus, as well as being a class f behavirs which may be learned and mdified, it is pssible that cnfrmity-nncnfrmity situatins may, fr example, serve t reinfrce ther instrumental respnses. This type f experimental apprach, i.e., the use f sme scial situatin r prcess as a reinfrcer fr sme nnscial instrumental respnse, has been used with success in a number f experimental paradigms, e.g., cnversatinal behavir (eiss, Byer, Clwick, & Mran, 1971; eiss, Lmbard, arren, & Kelley, 1971) and altruistic behavir (eiss, Buchanan, AItstatt, & Lmbard, 1971; eiss, Byer, Lmbard, and Stich, 1973). It is the specific purpse f the present research t assess the reinfrcing functins, if any, f escape frm a situatin wherein an individual is a nncnfrmist. In rder fr such a prcess t perate, a persn must be able t discriminate cnfrmity frm nncnfrmity situatins. Miller and Dllard (1941) have shwn that Ss can learn t discriminate between the cues f sameness and difference f their wn behavir t that f thers. Such cues may be extremely subtle in the mastery f cmplex skills, but in the present experiments the cues f sameness and difference were easily discriminable. In the curse f scializatin "a large number f punishments fr being different establish fear f *This research was supprted in Part by Grant GS27652 frm the Natinal Science Fundatin t R. F. eiss. Requests fr reprints may be sent t either authr, Department f Psychlgy, University f Oklahma, N rman, Oklahma nncnfrmity... hile learning t talk the child receives training in matching wrds, sentences, and descriptive paragraphs with imprtant features f the envirnment. He is crrected fr mistakes and learns t have anxiety abut respnding differently frm ther peple... the cues f difference aruse anxiety [Dllard & Miller, 1950, p. 92,119]." Mrever, a wide variety f reference grups such as families, clans, trade rnins, and natin-states require a certain degree f cnfrmity t grup nrms frm their members. Of curse, a given reference grup may psitively reward cnfrmity t grup nrms and react t nncnfrmity nt with punishment but with mere nnreward, as in the familiar experimental paradigm f selective learning. But in selective learning the nnrewarded alternative acquires the characteristics f an aversive drive frm which the S will learn t escape (Daly, 1971; Terrace, 1971), and similar characteristics might be exhibited by a nncnfrmist alternative. The negative reinfrcing functins f nncnfrmity shuld thus be a fundamental psychlgical phenmenn, extending ver a wide variety f situatins, and deserving f rigrus experimental study. Experimental evidence that differences in pinin aruse aversive drive can be fund in such diverse situatins as the classical cnditining f attractin respnses (e.g., Byrne, 1971; Byrne & Clre, 1967), the differential energizatin f dminant and subrdinate habits in paired-assciates learning (Lmbard, Libkum an, & eiss, 1972), and the instrumental escape cnditining f a switch-thrwing respnse in verbal cmmunicatin (e.g., eiss, Byer, Clwick, & Mran, 1971; eiss, Lmbard, arren, & Kelley, 1971). As the theretical analysis develped abve suggests, arusal f aversive drive by the cues f difference culd apply with particular frce t nncnfrmity. It shuld be pssible, then, t reinfrce an instrumental respnse by remving the S frm the situatin where he is a nncnfrmist. This type f prcedure is analgus t an instrumental escape cnditining paradigm in animal learning. The experiments reprted here attempted a stringent test f the hypthesis that a nncnfrmity situatin is 791

2 792 SEYBERT AND EISS analgus t instrumental escape cnditining by studying analgs f intermittent shck, delay f reinfrcement, acquisitin trials, and the Delay by Trials interactin, emplying measures and prcedures similar t escape cnditining. GENERAL METHOD The present experiments represent an attempt t delineate the negative reinfrcing functins f nncnfrmity and are nt intended t duplicate naturalistic nncnfrmity situatins in all their richness and cmplexity. A labratry experiment is nt designed t duplicate nature perfectly, but rather is t be used as a tl t investigate the basic prcesses underlying natural phenmena. The prcedure invlved in the present experiments inverts the type f perceptual judgment technique used by Asch (1951, 1956). On each trial the S recrded a perceptual judgment, saw that he was disagreed with by a number f ther "Ss" (i.e., was a nncnfrmist) and then pressed a switch (the instrumental respnse), the reinfrcement fr which was escape frm the aversive (nncnfrming) situatin. The present research differs frm "classical" studies f cnfrmity-nncnfrmity (e.g., Asch, 1951) in that in thse studies the S was given a "chice" f whether r nt t cnfrm, whereas in the present experiments the Ss, as a result f the prcedure, were placed in a psitin f nncnfrmity. This distinctin is nt unlike that between selective learning in a 'f-maze and instrumental cnditining in a straight alley, and thus the present prcedure ffers a nvel methd f examining the pssible effects f nncnfrmity. In "real life," nncnfrmity may arise thrugh neglect, failure, r refusal t cnfrm, and thus having the S make his judgment first in the present experiments was simply a device which permitted experimental cntrl f failure t cnfrm. Deceptin and MaskingTask A deceptin was used t mask the instrumental respnse and reinfrcement cntingencies frm the Ss (Spence, 1966). The experiments were represented t the Ss as studies f psychlgical insight. "Yu are participating in an experiment which invlves measures f psychlgical insight. It is well knw that psychtherapists use the facial expressins f their patients t aid them in assessment and interpretatin f certain types f emtinal imbalance... It has been established that infrmatin such as this can be btained frm live interviews r mvies... It is the purpse f this experiment t find ut if such infrmatin can be gathered by cllege students using still phtgraphs." As a masking task the S was tld that the apparatus was nly partly autmated and that part f his jb was t watch the chices f five ther "Ss" as they appeared n his panel s that he culd push a crrespnding buttn t register their chices in a memry bank, and then press a switch t clear the memry bank fr the next series f chices. The pseudchices f the ther five "Ss" were prvided by E and a majrity f the "Ss" either agreed r disagreed with the S depending upn the experimental cntingencies. The switch pressing (the instrumental respnse) erased all six chices and effectively remved the S, at least temprarily, frm the situatin in which he was a nncnfrmist. A secnd intrductry psychlgy student participated alng with the S and sat at an experimental panel in a cubicle adjacent t the S's cubicle, but this secnd persn's chices were nt recrded since he was present nly t increase the face validity f the prcedure fr the S and fr ptential Ss in the S pl. The ther fur participants were present nly n the S's memry bank and n the E's cntrl panel. Apparatus The S wre headphnes and was seated in frnt f an experimental panel. Labels n the S's panel were stated in terms f the masking task instructins. Since the "Ss' Chices" were made between pairs f pictures labeled "A" and "B," several f the devices munted n the panel were als labeled "A" and "B": (1) a pair f lights labeled "Ss' Chices," (2) crrespnding pushbuttns labeled "Transfer t Memry," and (3) a"memry Bank" with an stensible readut cnsisting f a clumn f six pairs f square lights, ne pair fr each "S." Als munted n S's panel were a "Subject I G" signal, a light labeled "Memry Being Recrded," and a light labeled "OK t Erase Memry" with a crrespnding "Erase Memry" switch. The E's cntrl panel was lcated in the rm adjacent t that ccupied by the S. The cntrl panel cnsisted f a series f switches t cntrl the pseudchices and the lights f the S's "memry bank." Als in the cntrl panel were cassette recrders fr playing instructins, a micrphne, a set f headphnes fr the E, a cntrl timer, and a Lafayette digital stp lck which autmatically measured the S's respnse latency t.01 sec. Prcedure The S received the deceptive ratinale and preexperimental instructins n tape ver the headphnes. The E then asked all six "Ss" if they had any questins. An experimental sessin cnsisted f IS trials, and the series f clearly labeled signals led each S easily thrugh each trial. An experimental trial began when the tape briefly described the "mental r emtinal prblem" suffered by an unidentified member f the pair (A and B) pictured n that trial. hen the "Subject-I G" light was lit, the S identified the member described by pressing the crrespnding pushbuttn (A r B) which simultaneusly transferred his chice t the "memry bank." Because S was the first t chse, it was pssible t make him a nncnfrmist by manipulatin f the ther Ss' chices as presented t S via the "Ss' Chices" lights (A r B). It was desirable t fcus the attentin f S directly n his nncnfrmity t the ther "Ss" pseudchices. Attentin t the ther Ss' chices was maximized by S's extra jb f pressing the crrespnding (A r B) "Transfer t Memry" buttn, and, after all six chices had been transferred t the "memry bank," S was required t mnitr the "Memry Being Recrded" light, which was placed s as t prvide him with a gd view f his nncnfrmity displayed by the memry bank lights. Thus, the task was designed s that the S necessarily directed his attentin t his nncnfrmity in rder t perfrm the experimental task. Since E culd mnitr these actins, it was pssible t be certain that Ss were perfrming the tasks which directed their attentin t their nncnfrmity. Nncnfrmity trials placed the S in a minrity f ne (himself) r tw. N S had a cnstant ppsitin, and indeed there were ther trials included n a specified schedule in which S was agreed with by three r fur "Ss." Such trials were necessitated by the transparent duplicity f cnstant ppsitin, as well as the utility f such trials as an experimental manipulatin. Escape frm nncnfrmity was affrded by the final steps. The "OK t Erase Memry" light went n, S threw the "Erase Memry" switch, and the memry bank lights went ut. The E's latency timer autmatically started when S's "OK t Erase Memry" light went n and stpped when S threw the "Erase Memry" switch. This prcedure was mdeled n discrete trial instrumental cnditining. The reinfrcement (erasing the chices which indicated nncnfrmity) was cntingent n the instrumental respnse (switch pressing). The dependent variable was speed (l/iatency) measured frm the time f the presentatin f the SD (illuminatin f the "OK t Erase Memry" light) t the instrumental switch-pressing respnse. EXPERIMENT I: INTERMITTENT NONCONFORMITY The intermittent shck prcedure has received cnsiderable experimental attentin as a technique fr studying instrumental escape cnditining (e.g.,

3 CONDITIONING AND NONCONFORMITY 793 Franchina, 1966, 1969; Franchina & Snyder, 1970). Intermittent ShOCK invlves the presence f shck n sme cnditining trials and the absence f shck n thers. Franchina (1966) fund that acquisitin perfrmance, i.e., asympttic respnse speed, was a functin f the percentage f shck trials. If escape frm a nncnfrmity situatin is analgus t reinfrcement, then speed f the resprrse which prduces the escape shuld be a functin f the percentage f trials n which the S was placed in a nncnfrmity situatin. It wuld be expected that (a) a grup receiving nncnfrmity trials 67% f the time wuld shw greater asympttic perfrmance than a grup receiving nncnfrmity trials 33% f the time, and (b) that the ~3% grup wuld shw greater respnse speed than a grup which received n nncnfrmity trials (0%grup). The 0% grup wuld be expected t demnstrate n increase in speed f the instrumental respnse since n drive, and thus n reinfrcement, wuld be present _110 > z' l-.e(..j 90 <, :: e 70 e, f/) 67% 33% 0% Methd The Ss were 24 male and 24 female intrductry psychlgy students wh were participating in the experiment as part f a curse requirement. They were equally divided int three grups (N =16/grup): Grup 67% received 10 nncnfrmity trials ut f 15; Grup 33%received 5 nncnfrmity trials ut f 15; and Grup 0 received n nncnfrmity trials (i.e., Ss in this grup wert; in the majrity n all l S trials). Fur different mixed sequences f intermittent nncnfrmity were used, fully cunterbalanced fr sex. Results and Discussin It can be seen in Fig. 1 that the data frm the present experiment clsely parallel the intermittent shck-escape data f Franchina (1966) fr Grups 67% and 33%. Specifically, Grup 67% shws greater respnse speed than des Grup 33% and bth Grups 67% and 33% shw faster respnse speed and greater asympttic perfrmance than Grup O. In fact, there des nt appear t have been any increase in respnse speed fr Grup O. All f these impressins were cnfirmed by a 3 (levels f intermittent nncnfrmity) by 2 (sex) by 15 (individual trials) analysis f variance which was perfrmed n the data. The analysis revealed a significant intermittent nncnfrmity main effect [F(2,42) = 25.90, p <.001], a significant main effect fr trials [F(14,588) = 9.3 L p < and a nnsignificant main effect fr sex (F < 1). The Intermittent Nncnfrmity by Trials interactin was significant [F(28,588) = 2.50, p <.001], as was the Sex by Trials interactin [F(14,588) = 2.10, p <.05]. Subsequent analyses f the Intermittent Nncnfrmity by Trials interactin (via Tukey's crrectin prcedure) indicated that, ver a blck f the last fur trials, Grup 67% was respnding significantly faster than Grup 33% (p <.05) and bth Grups 67% and 33% were respnding faster than Grup 0 (p <.01 in bth cases). Tests f simple main effects n the trials variable fr each grup indicated that significant increases in I I I I I I I I I I I I II II BLOCKS f TO TRIALS Fig. 1 Intermittent shck analg: Curvesf respnse speed fr three percentages f nncnfrmity trials. respnse speed ccurred in Grup 67% [F(14,210) = 5.73, p <.001] and in Grup 33% [F(14,210) = 4.96, p <.001], but that, as predicted, n increase in respnse speed ccurred in Grup 0 [F(14,21O) =.80]. Even thugh the Sex by Trials interactin was significant, indicating that the different sexes respnded at different rates, the fact that the Intermittent Nncnfrmity by Sex interactin (F < 1) failed t apprach an acceptable level f significance indicates that intermittent nncnfrmity was nt differentiallv affected by the sex variable. Thus, the results indicated (a) that escape frm a nncnfrmity situatin des functin t reinfrce the respnse that resulted in the escape frm nncnfrmity, (b) that increase in respnse speed is a functin f the percentage f nncnfrmity trials, and (c) that when n "drive" arused by nncnfrmity is present (Grup 0%), n increase in speed f the respnse ccurs. Since the data f the present experiment (fr Grups 66% and 33%) clsely parallel that f Franchina (1966), supprt is prvided fr the hypthesis that the nncnfrmity situatin is analgus t instrumental escape cnditining. EXPERIMENT II: DELAY OF REINFORCEMENT If the pprtunity t escape frm a nncnfrmity situatin functins as a reinfrcer, then the time interval

4 794 SEYBERT AND EISS between the instrumental switch-pressing respnse and the darkening f the light in the memry bank which indicate nncnfrmity shuld have the functinal prperties f delay f reinfrcement in instrumental escape cnditining. One prperty f delay f reinfrcement is that respnse speed is an inverse functin f length f delay, i.e., the lnger the delay perid, the weaker the respnse strength (e.g., Fwler & Trapld, 1962; Penney, 1967; ds & Feldman, 1966). A secnd prperty f delay is that it interacts with trials: Delay effects are greater as the number f acquisitin trials increases. Similar results shuld be expected with the present nncnfrmity prcedure if escape frm nncnfrmity functins as a reinfrcer. Methd There were three grups in the experiment representing three different levels f delay f reinfrcement: 0, 1.5, and 3 sec. Each grup was cmpsed f 12 male and 8 female intrductry psychlgy students wh were participating t fulfill a curse requirements (ttal N =60). All grups received 15 trials, 10 f which were nncnfrmity trials. The sequence f trials was btained frm the same randm schedule used in Experiment I. The delay f reinfrcement was regulated autmatically by an interval timer started by the S's switch-pressing respnse, which erased the lights in the memry bank after the prescribed delay perid > JZ 110 I <t..i ,... ~ 80 n. (/) 70 3 sec. I I I I I I!, I I L I,, s 7 g 9 10 II TRIALS Fig. 2. Delay f reinfrcement analg: Curves f respnse speed fr three levels f delay f escape frm nncnfrmity. Results and Discussin Figure 2 depicts nncnfrmity effects characteristic f delay f reinfrcement. A 3 (level f delay) by 15 (trials) analysis f variance revealed significant main effects fr trials [F(14,798) = 29.74, P <.001] and delay [F(2,57) =32.53, P <.001]. The Delay by Trials interactin was als highly significant [F(28,798) = 3.34, P <.001]. The TUkey pst hc cmparisns indicated that respnse speed ver the last fur trials fr the O-sec grups was significantly greater than fr the 1.5-sec grup (p <.01) and that bth the O-sec and 1.5-sec grups were respnding faster than the 3-sec grup (p <.01 in bth cases). Tests f simple main effects n the trials variable fr all grups revealed that all three grups demnstrated an increase in speed fthe instrumental respnse acrss trials [F(14,266) = 13.55, 16.17, 3.90, all ps <.001 fr Grups 0 sec, 1.5 sec, and 3 sec, respectively}. Bth f the prperties f delay f reinfrcement described fr instrumental escape cnditining, namely, the interactin f Delay by Trials and the fact that respnse speed is an inverse functin f length f delay, were demnstrated in the present experiment using a nncnfrmity situatin as the aversive mtivatinal stimulus. Thus the results f the present experiment clearly indicated a crrespndence between the nncnfrmity situatin and escape cnditining. GENERAL DISCUSSION The results f bth Experimen ts I and II prvide strng supprt fr the hypthesis that the nncnfrmity situatin is analgus t instrumental escape cnditining. The present experiments indicated that escape frm a situatin in which ne is a nncnfrmist functins like a reinfrcer in escape cnditining. It was shwn that Ss wuld learn an instrumental respnse, the reinfrcement fr which was the pprtunity t escape frm a situatin in which they were a nncnfrmist. hen the nncnfrmity situatin was presented n an intermittent basis,. respnse speed was fund t be a functin f the percentage f nncnfrmity trials. hen the pprtunity t escape nncnfrmity was delayed, respnse speed was fund t interact with trials. These results crrespnd clsely with thse f escape cnditining experiments using the intermittent shck and delay prcedures. The results f the present experiments jin a grwing bdy f scial psychlgical research mdeled n instrumental cnditining, e.g., cnversatinal behavir (eiss, Byer, Clwick, & Mran, 1971; eiss, Lmbard, arren, & Kelley, 1971), altruistic behavir (eiss, Buchanan, Altstatt, & Lmbard, 1971; eiss, Byer, Lmbard, & Stich, 1973), and scial facilitatin (eiss & Miller, 1971). It is imprtant t nte that while the present research was mdeled n escape

5 CONDITIONING AND NONCONFORMITY 795 cnditining, in n way is it prpsed that nncnfrmity behavir is escape cnditining. Reductin is nt the gal f this research but rather an attempt has been made t investigate a less knwn and understd research area (nncnfrmity) thrugh use f a mdel (escape cnditining) which is much better understd, bth in terms f empirical results and theretical principles. A mre cmplete expsitin f the use f mdeling as a technique fr research guidance and thery cnstructin may be fund elsewhere (e.g., eiss, Lmbard, arren, & Kelley, 1971; eiss & Miller, 1971). Our principal purpse in cnducting these experiments has been t further what Neal Miller (1959) calls "extensin f liberalized S-R thery," bradening experimental psychlgy withut sacrificing the principles r methdlgy r rigr f the discipline. In rder t implement this purpse we have nt sught further evidence that cnfrmity is a learnable respnse but rather have taken the nvel curse f experimental" investigatin f the reinfrcing functins f escape frm nncnfrmity. As in all basic experimental psychlgy, the present experiments were intended t yield fundamental results, and a certain sphisticatin is always required in generalizing such fundamental results beynd the purity f the experimental labratry, whether ne studies verbal learning r studies nncnfrmity in an escape cnditining paradigm. The present experiments have revealed several such fundamental reinfrcing prperties f escape frm nncnfrmity in a highly cntrlled experimental situatin. REFERENCES Asch, S. E. Effects f grup pressure upn the mdificatin and distrtin f judgments. In H. Guetzkw (Ed.), Grups, leadership, and men. Pittsburgh: Carnegie Press, Asch, S. E. Studies f independence and cnfrmity: I. A minrity f ne against a unanimus majrity. 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