Topics in Animal Cognition. Oliver W. Layton
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1 Topics in Animal Cognition Oliver W. Layton October 9, 2014
2 About Me
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7 Animal Cognition
8 Animal Cognition What is animal cognition? Critical thinking: cognition or learning? What is the representation in primates? numerosity. Is it local or distributed?
9 Personhood of chimpanzees Premises of the defense: 1. Chimps are highly intelligent, autonomous, self-aware, and can make choices. 2. All creatures that are highly intelligent, autonomous, self-aware, and makes decisions is a person.
10 What is animal cognition? Cognition refers to perception, learning, memory and decision making. The manner by which animals take in information about the world through senses, process, retain, and decide to act on it. Animal cognition as an area of study often concerns itself with what aspects of cognition are unique to non-human animals.
11 Non-cognitive v.s. Cognitive Frequently, there is a distinction between reflex-based and higher order behavior. Example: Alarm calling Higher not always higher.
12 Is this lower order cognition? Leaf bug Stone fish Crypsis or camouflage
13 Is this lower order cognition? Crypsis or camouflage
14 A Conscious Dilemma Studying animal cognition does not necessitate a stance whether consciousness or selfawareness is implicated. Example: Kin recognition
15 Example: Scrub-jay foraging
16 Two types of declarative memory Semantic Memory for facts & concepts (e.g. George Washington was the first U.S. president). Episodic Memory for events in personal life. Includes time, space, context, and personal perspective.
17 Scrub-jay foraging Foraging locations Waxmoth larvae Peanuts Clayton & Dickinson (1999)
18 Critical thinking: cognition or learning? Behaviorism The environment controls behavior Cognitive psychology Internal mental states play a casual role in producing behavior. False dichotomy? How about an interplay between the brain and the environment? Evidence for cognition may just reflect learning.! Example: deception
19 Learning Nativist view Some ideas are innate and do not depend on an individual s past experience (c.f. Kant). Empiricist view Knowledge is acquired through experience (c.f. Locke). Mazur (2005) Process of change that occurs as a result of an individual s experience. Rescorla (1988) Process by which an organism benefits from experience so that its future behavior is better adapted to its environment.
20 Despite 2000 years of learning theories, no systematic experiments were conducted until the end of the 19 th century!
21 Animal cognition! Clever Hans (1890), the prodigious horse who was able to solve arithmetic problems and had competencies in geometry, music, and foreign languages.
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23 Why does seeing your fridge make you hungry? Pavlov ( ) noted that dogs began salvaging before the delivery of food.! The dogs learned to predict the arrival of food.
24 Pavlovian (Classical) conditioning Bell rings Bell rings and food arrives Bell rings No response Salvation Salvation
25 Pavlovian (Classical) conditioning Pavlov s crucial insight many animal behaviors can be traced back to innate or unconditioned reflexes. Two components: 1) The unconditioned stimulus (US; e.g. food) involuntarily elicits 2) The unconditioned response (UR; e.g. salvation) A new conditioned reflex/response (CR) develops when an otherwise neutral event becomes associated with the US.! The once neutral stimulus is known as the conditioned stimulus (CS) and can now elicit the learned CR.
26 Pavlovian (Classical) conditioning Initially US (food) CS (bell) UR (salvation) No response During training US (food) + CS (bell) UR (salvation) After repeated pairings CS (bell) CR (salvation)
27 Can this idea be expressed in a more quantitative way? Hull proposed that the amount of learning on a given trial depends on animal s state at the beginning of the trial. There is a maximum amount of conditioning supported by a given CS. e.g. the expectancy of the food from bell rings can only grow so strong.
28 Bush & Mosteller (1951) linear learning model: V: probability that an animal elicits a response. β: rate at which animal learns. λ: maximum response supported by the US dv dt = β (λ V ) Increase or decrease in likelihood of a behavior over time depends on 1) how fast animal learns. 2) how much animal already knows about how predictive a CS is of a US.
29 The Rescorla-Wagner model dv bell dt = α β (λ V ) bell j Factors j related to food (US) Change in salvation depends on due to bell ringing 1) how fast animal learns. 2) level of prior conditioning to other stimuli j associated with the US Equation models the strength of association between a stimulus (bell) and the response (salivating).
30 Model describes how association evolves over time Max associative strength
31 Model predicts novel learning outcomes Max associative strength Larger β faster acquisition Smaller β slower acquisition
32 Advantage of mathematical model: Generalization In real life, the occurrence of a US is accompanied by many CSes. We must be able to ignore CSes that do not improve our ability to predict future events. Pavlov (1927) A more salient CS overshadows the association of a less salient CS. CS1 (small light) + CS2 (loud bell) - US (shock) CS2 (loud bell) CS1 (small light) CR (fear) CR (fear) CR (fear)
33 Overshadowing α bell > α light dv bell dt = α bell β (λ V j ) Factors j related to food (US) Vloud bell Vsmall light
34 Does an animal need a large brain for learning? Aplysia (sea slug) No. ~20,000 neurons Capable of associative learning! US (shock) CS (light) CS (light) post training UR (recoil) No response CR (recoil)
35 What do we know about the representation of animal cognition? Focus on numerosity
36 Numerosity The numerical quantity of items present (i.e. how many elements are there in a set?). Humans and animals endowed with non-symbolic ability to assess numerosity. Parietal cortex 3 5
37 Scalar Variability Error in numerosity judgments depends on absolute magnitude of the quantities involved. 1 v.s. 2 easier to differentiate than 99 and 100.
38 Scalar Variability Harder to gauge larger magnitudes than smaller magnitudes.
39 Accumulator Hypothesis Serial coding of cardinal number. Variability depends on magnitude. + + =
40 A word about variability most likely item (e.g. 3) possible but less likely (e.g. 4) very unlikely (e.g. 6) Perceived number of items
41 Accumulator Hypothesis Serial coding of cardinal number. Variability depends on magnitude. + + =
42 Evidence supporting the accumulator hypothesis Roitman et al. (2007)
43 Livingstone et al. (2010) Evidence supporting the accumulator hypothesis Choose between dots Choose between numerals
44 Livingstone et al. (2010) Choose between dots Choose between numerals
45 Compression Hypothesis Parallel coding of cardinal number. Variability is constant. compression occurs here Detect Add up 2 2 things representations
46 Evidence supporting the compression hypothesis Nieder & Miller (2004)
47 Evidence supporting accumulator hypothesis Nieder & Miller (2004)
48 Rank The ordinal position of an item in a list. A B C D 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
49 Paradigm Push movement correct Turn movement correct Time Sawamura et al. (2002)
50 A neuron prefers when turn is the 4th and 5th movement. Sawamura et al. (2002)
51 How do primates draw geometric shapes? Averbeck et al. (2002)
52 Is cognition local or distributed? maybe a localized smart piece of brain is not needed for cognition. e.g. wood lice
53 Do you need a big brain to find the shortest way around a maze?
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56 Why is it hard? (n-1)! 2 Possible tours.
57 The Factorial Function 1,400,000,000,000 1,307,674,368,000 Possible Tours 1,050,000,000, ,000,000, ,000,000, , ,880 39,916,8006,227,020, Cities
58 The Optimal Solution 14! = 87,178,291,200 unique tours
59 The Optimal Solution Brute Force: O(n!) 3 ghz 8-core machine: >6 months
60 The Optimal Solution Ant Colony Optimization: 1.6 ghz dual-core laptop: <5 seconds
61 Ant Optimization
62 Ant Optimization
63 Ant Optimization
64 Slime molds Creature in the class Mycetozoa (fungus). Life cycle: start as individual cells, then based on food availability grow and divide. When food runs out, cells congregate into a tissue (pseudoplasmodium). Looks like a slug. The cells in the mass act together to find food
65 Slime molds solve TSP too!
66 How do the cells organize to solve the problem? When food runs low, cells release a chemical signaling agent (cyclic AMP), which attracts other cells (c.f. ants). The more camp, the greater the attraction. Leads to formation of unified mass. Called emergence or self-organization
67 Take-home messages - While an animal behavior may seem to convey a cognitive competency, challenging this observation may show a learned behavior (Hans!).!! - A big slab of complex brain tissue isn t necessary for cognition can be distributed in space and time across many independent organisms.
68 Thank you.! Questions?
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What Is Behavior? Behavior: change in activity in response to stimuli Is what an animal does and how it does it Includes muscular and non-muscular activity Cognition: the ability of an animal s nervous