National Program on Technology Enhanced Learning Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur International Business Communication Session 1:

Transcription

1 Session 1: Introduction: Answers 1. Refer to slide 6: a. Stimulus-response b. Behavioral motivation c. Linking, development of higher mental processes, regulation of behavior d. To make sense of our worlds 2. Refer to slide 7: a. Content + medium +context + interpretation 3. Refer to slide 8: a. Source medium channel receiver 4. Intrapersonal, interpersonal, and person to group 5. Slide 10 & 11: a. Based on channel: i. Face to face ii. Voice to voice iii. Face to voice iv. Written (including digital) b. Based on level of interaction: i. Person to person ii. Person to group c. Based on physical environment: Home, work etc. 6. The utterance Bakhtin emotional volitional aspect gives utterance its meaning 7. Refer to Slides 14-16: Squires model: Functions, Processes and Contingencies. and details of each.

2 Session 2: Definitions and concepts: Answers 1. Refer to definition by Porter and Samovar on slide Intra- within the same culture; inter with people from different cultures. 3. Slide 9: Everything Race, religion, ideology, nationality, education, gender, profession etc. 4. International refers to geo-political boundaries. 5. Because: a. Impact of technology on interpersonal communication b. Mobility and migration c. Self-awareness d. Universality vs. relativity

3 Session 3: Communicative competence: Answers 1. Doing business with people from different cultures, ideologies and backgrounds etc. requires one to understand interculturally and be able to express oneself interculturally. 2. Samovar and Porter (1994) Communicative Effectiveness Interpersonal understanding Interpersonal understanding is a function of similarity of perceptual orientations, systems of belief and communicative styles Backlund (1977) : Components of competence: Linguistic competence, Possession of competence, Contextuality, Appropriateness, and Accomplishment 3. IABC study (2004) a. Clarity of purpose b. Effective interfaces c. Effective sharing of information d. Consistent communication behaviour of leaders

4 Session 4: Communicative competence (Contd.) 1. Interpretive competence includes: a. Sizing up situations, people and relationships b. Scripts, self monitors and preconceived notions c. The implications of scripts, preconceived notions and perceptions of interpersonal relationships on interpersonal interactions, especially at work. 2. The systems in relational competence in the integrative model of intercultural competence proposed by the Spitzberg in 1994, are: a. Individual system includes those characteristics an individual may possess that facilitate competent interaction in a normative social sense. b. Episodic system includes those features of a particular Actor that facilitate competence impressions on the part of a specific Coactor in a specific episode of interaction. c. Relational system includes those components that assist a person s competence across the entire span of relationships rather than in just a given episode of interaction.

5 Session 5: Communicative competence (Contd.) 1. Episodic System (Spitzberg, 1994): Competence is episode specific, even if both actors are the same. a. As the Actor s communicative status increases, the Coactor s impression of the actor s competence increases. The Actor s communicative status is dependent upon i. Increase in the Actor s motivation, knowledge, and skills positive reinforcement increase in adaptation and refinement skill in interaction with the Coactor ii. Contextual obstruction of the Actor s performance succeeding at communication despite contextual obstructions or handicaps iii. Actor s achievement of valued outcomes iv. Actor s extant-attributed communicative status you communicate well because of who you are perceived to be. b. The Coactor s impression of the Actor s competence is a function of the Actor s fulfillment of the Coactor s expectations, which depend upon i. The Actor s fulfillment of positive Coactor expectancies ii. The Actor s normative violation of the Coactor s negative expectancies iii. The Actor s fulfillment of the Coactor s competence prototype expectancies iv. The Actor s normative reciprocity of positive effect and compensation of negative effect 2. Competence in the relational system includes: a. The level of communicative quality in an established relationship b. Index of the mutual adaptation and satisfaction achieved by a relationship and depends upon a. Mutual fulfillment of autonomy and intimacy b. Mutual attraction c. Mutual trust d. Access to social support e. Relational network integration

6 Session 6: Intercultural Communication 1. According to Johnson (2002), a. Your identity is a consistent set of attitudes that defines who you are. b.your self-schema is a generalization about the self, derived from past experience, that organizes and guides your understanding of the information you learn about yourself from interacting with others. c. Your gender identity is your fundamental sense of your maleness or femaleness. d.your ethnic identity is your sense of belonging to one particular ethnic group. e. Self acceptance is a high regard for yourself, or conversely, a lack of cynicism about yourself. 2. Identity is defined as an enactment of cultural communication (Hecht, Collier, & Beau, 1993, in Collier, 1994) Cultural identity (Collier, 1994): The particular character of the group communication system that emerges in the particular situation. Social psychological perspective views identity a characteristic of the person and personality, and the self as centered in social roles and social practices. Communication perspective views identity as something that emerges when messages are exchanged between persons. Properties of cultural identity (Collier, 1994): 1. Self-perception: a. Avowal: This is who I am b. Ascription: This is who others think I am 2. Modes of expression: a. Core symbols: central ideas and concepts and the everyday behaviors that characterize membership in that cultural group. b. Labels: terms groups use to classify and interpret these core symbols c. Norms: standards for interpreting core symbols d. Individual, relational and communal forms of identity e. Enduring and changing property of identity f. Affective, cognitive, and behavioral components of identity g. Content and relationship h. Salience and intensity differences Identity as a determinant of culture: If I am not for myself, who will be for me? But if I am only for myself, what am I? (Talmud) Basic Human Needs: Join with others in a cooperative effort to achieve something great. Be a unique and separate individual who is valued and respected in one s own right.

7 Session 7: Intercultural Communication (Contd.) 1. Cultural competence is the demonstrated ability to enact a cultural identity in a mutually appropriate and effective manner. Intercultural competence is the reinforcement of culturally different identities that are salient in the particular situation. 2. According to Porter and Samovar (1994), culture is The deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. 3. Sources of Difference (Collier, 1994; Pinderhughes, 1989; Martin & Nakayama,2001): Race Religion Ideology Nationality Ethnicity Appearance Personal artifacts Body structure (Height, weight, height-weight ratio) Behavioral style Gender Sexual identity Age Family constellation Socioeconomic status Educational (qualifications and system) Professional and personal experiences Occupation 4. According to Johnson (2002), the challenges posed by diversity are: a. Categorizing on the basis of inherited or acquired traits b. Prejudice c. Ethnocentrism d. Cultural conditioning e. Stereotypes f. Illusionary correlation and false consensus bias g. Discrimination

8 Session 8: Intercultural Communication (Contd.) 1. Edward T. Hall (1976, quoted in Samovar and Porter, 1994) A High Context (HC) Communication or message is one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message. A Low Context (LC) communication or message [is one in which] the mass of information is vested in the explicit code. 2. Characteristics of HC communication (Bernstein, 1964, cited in Hall, 1994): a. Restricted code of intimacy words and sentences collapse and are shortened. b. The code that one uses signals and is consistent with the situation. c. A shifting of code signals a shift in everything else that is to follow. Characteristics of LC communication (Bernstein, 1964, cited in Hall, 1994) a. Explicit vocabulary b. Highly articulated c. Highly specific code 3. According to Johanson and Vahlen, (1977) (cited in Magnusson et al.), PD is the sum of factors preventing the flow of information from and to the market. e.g. differences in language, education, business practices, industrial development and culture. Mulder (1976): Power Distance (PD): The extent and acceptance of unequal distribution of power Kostova (1996): Institutional Distance (ID): The sum of differences on the three pillars (regulative, normative and cognitive environments)

9 Session 9: Intercultural Communication: Thought and Speech 1. Cognitive styles (Lieberman, 1994) Field-dependence/ Field-independence Field Dependence: Holistic perception of event Sensitivity to feelings and opinions of others in the group (Scarcella, 1990 in Lieberman, 1994) In essence, perceiving that one is an integral unit of and dependent upon one s context or field Field Independence: Isolation of the details of the field or context compartmentalization or sequencing of various elements of the field in order to attribute their happening to logic or cause and effect Lack of emphasis on feelings or emotions Reflectivity/ Impulsivity: Reflectivity: o Thinking about a problem o Taking the time to be completely right than to be partially wrong o Mistakes are treated rather harshly o Grey areas are not acceptable: The solution is either right or wrong Impulsivity: o Solve and move on o Being partially correct and moving on is more important than taking the time to be absolutely correct (and missing out on opportunities for growth while doing so) o Grey areas in problem solving acceptable o (Damen, 1987 in Lieberman, 1994) Tolerance/ intolerance of ambiguity Tolerance of ambiguity: Accepting the grey areas in language, thought and behavior Bipolarity of language (Right or wrong, good or bad) also dependent on context. Encourages cause-effect thinking, and linearity (Korzybsky, 1921 in Lieberman, 1994) Less tolerance of ambiguity where there is greater bipolarity in the structure and meaning of the language itself (Lieberman, 1994)

10 Session 10: Thought and Speech (Contd.) 1. Cultural and situational variations in patterns of thought (Condon and Yousef, 1975; Felder and Silverman, 1988; Gregorc, 1979; and Pribram, 1949, in Lieberman, 1994): a. Universalistic: Universal application of concepts b. Nominalistic: Abstract terms exist, but abstract objects (e.g. morality, politeness etc.) do not exist universally c. Hypothetical: Assumption based d. Intuitional: Gut feeling e. Organismic: Every concept is related to the other concept and is a constitutent part of the whole. f. Dialectical: Using reasoned arguments to establish truth g. Temporal: Reasoning using time as the basis h. Axiomatic: Start with definitions, postulates, and common notions and establish the truth according to those i. Affective: Feeling that one is true regardless of the evidence j. Inductive/ Deductive k. Analytic l. Global m. Sequential n. Concrete sequential: Reasoning based on reality and real tangible objects o. Abstract random: Creative, and reason by making connections that may not seem evident, between real objects 2. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (1929): What we think about is strongly influenced by the language we think in because our vocabulary limits what we can think about and express. Applications of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis to the business environment: How people conceptualize their environment is determined by the language they use intrapersonally. When people are not very familiar with the language they are conducting business in, they will understand the concepts in a manner that is different than the manner in which native speakers of the language used for business, interpret the same concepts. Their frame of reference will be different. e.g. explanation of a concept like ERP to someone not familiar with it

11 Session 11: Translation as problematic discourse 1. Coincident meanings: Interpretations drawn in a similar manner by people who have similar reasons for drawing the same interpretations from the same concept. 2. Changes of organizational contexts a. Abuses of legitimate authority b. Increased environmental turbulence c. Organizational resistance movements by members with contradictory views Examples of organizational concepts evolving constantly: Vision and Mission statements 3. Translation factors into multi-lingual corporate environments in the following ways: a. We think in a language different from the one we speak in or conduct our business in b. Our language, and the response to the language we use in our work environments determines how we frame our future inputs to the organization c. In an attempt to explain our thoughts and ideas to our peers, we tend to over-simplify what we are saying d. Meaning is essentially embedded in context: Lack of familiarity with the context results in inhibition of the accurate interpretation of meaning e. The challenges in all of the above are (Gray et al., 1985, in Banks & Banks, 1991): i. Issues involving inaccuracies in carrying over referential meanings from one language to another ii. Issues involving the loss of common socio-cultural contexts iii. Issues involving the change or sedimentation of power relationships

12 Session 12: Nonverbal communication 1. Nonverbal communication includes all behaviors, attributes, or objects (except words) that communicate messages that have social meaning. (Angell, 2004) Some characteristics of nonverbal communication include (Angell, 2004; O Rourke and Singh, 2006) a. Its dynamic nature b. Its dependence largely on context and culture specificity c. Higher believability than verbal communication, and d. Ambiguity 2. Nonverbal behavior and nonverbal communication (Richmond & McCroskey, 2002) Receiver Source Behaves to Send Message Behaves with no intent to send message Interprets behavior as message Does not interpret behavior as message Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Behavior Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Behavior 3. The goals of nonverbal communication are (O Rourke and Singh, 2006; Adler, Rosenfeld and Proctor, 2004): a. Accenting b. Complementing c. Contradicting d. Repeating e. Regulating f. Substituting g. Deceiving 4. Nonverbal behaviours may support verbal behaviours in the following ways (Lewis, 1980): a. Repeating: e.g. giving a person verbal instructions on how to reach a certain destination and then pointing in that direction b. Contradicting: e.g. Shaking and perspiring heavily and stammering while making a speech in which you claim you are not nervous c. Substituting: e.g. facial expressions or rigidity of body position which communicates a message without a word being spoken

13 d. Complementing: e.g. reflecting an attitude of embarrassment when admitting to a supervisor about your poor performance e. Accenting: e.g. banging your hand on the desk every time you want to emphasize a point with an accompanying gaze f. Relating and regulating: e.g. a head nod, eye movement, or shift in position which signals another person to continue to speak or stop speaking

14 Session 13: Barriers to communication 1. The reasons people face problems in intercultural communication are (Barna, 1994): a. We can never know the state of mind (the attitudes, feelings and thoughts) of other people. b. We depend on signals, which are frequently ambiguous, to inform us about the wishes and attitudes of other people. c. We use our own coding system to decipher these signals. d. The way we decode the signals we receive depends on our own state of mind at the time, and may be biased. These lead to: a. Assumption of similarities b. Language differences c. Nonverbal misrepresentations d. Preconceptions and stereotypes e. Tendency to evaluate f. High anxiety 2. The psychological barriers to communication are: a. Attitudinal barriers Perceptual barriers Preconceptions, stereotypes, assumptions, associations b. Emotional barriers c. Tendency to evaluate d. Personality differences (introverts and extroverts)

15 Session 14: Barriers to communication (Contd.) 1. The organizational barriers to communication are (Lewis, 1980): a. Organizational levels b. Faulty transmission of information c. Bypassing d. Blinderedness e. Defensiveness f. Managerial unconcern 2. The reasons for common communication problems in organizations are (Lewis, 1980): a. Managers use communication as a corrective process rather than as a preventative process b. Managers take a solution orientation to communication problems rather than a causal orientation c. Managers mistake information processing for communication d. Managers do not have accurate self-concepts of their role in the communication process e. Managers do not recognize organizational communication as a functional area subject to improvement and sophistication

16 Session 15: Barriers to communication (Contd.) and Listening 1. Listening = Filtered heard sounds + perception (which is biased and selective in nature) 2. Why do managers need to develop listening skills? a. Understanding and developing competence in verbal, non-verbal and digital communication b. Global villages c. Travel d. Personal lives e. International interactions f. Changing political scenario

17 Session 16: Listening 1. Some of the intrapersonal barriers to listening are: a. Comparing (the speaker to yourself or others) b. Mind reading (the speaker) c. Rehearsing (what to say next) d. Filtering (selective listening) e. Judging f. Dreaming g. Identifying (with what is being presented) h. Advising (the speaker) i. Sparring (being quick to disagree) j. Being right (your inability to accept criticism) k. Derailing (changing the topic) l. Placating (agreeing with everything) 2. Some forms of ineffective listening include (Wood, 1998): a. Pseudolistening: i. Pretending to listen, appearing attentive, but not really listening ii. Problems: 1. For listener: nothing registers 2. For speaker: confusion about feedback from audience b. Monopolizing i. Hogging the scene by focussing on oneself instead of listening ii. Tactics: 1. Rerouting 2. Interrupting c. Selective listening i. Focusing on only particular parts of communication ii. Problems: 1. Misinterpretation 2. Incomplete understanding leading to confusion or bias d. Defensive listening i. Perceiving personal attacks, criticisms, or hostile undertones in communication where none is intended ii. Problems: 1. Bias 2. Unnecessary stress leading to selective listening and related issues

18 e. Ambushing i. Selective listening for the specific purpose of gathering ammunition to use in attacking a speaker ii. Problems: 1. Exact opposite of Defensive listening 2. Bias and misinterpretation f. Literal listening i. Listening for content vs. listening in context ii. Problem: 1. Misinterpretation g. Emotional deafness i. The mental tuning out that happens when the speaker uses terminology that turns off the listener or uses words so embodied with feeling that the listener gets caught up in what is being said ii. Factors affecting emotional deafness: 1. Level of involvement: High involvement leads to high bia which leads to low likelihood of people wanting to listen 2. Defensiveness: stems from insecurity 3. Resentment of opposition 4. Clash of personalities

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20 Session 17: Communication Rules 1. The different kinds of rules followed in spoken language are: a. Phonological rules govern how sounds are combined to form words (Video clip The Chaos) b. Syntactic rules govern the way symbols can be arranged c. Pragmatic rules tell us what uses and interpretations of a message are appropriate in a given context d. Coordinated Management of Meaning We use rules at several levels to create our own messages and interpret others statements. 2. Procedural rules determine how the speaker will carry out the communication event. Some of the procedural rules in interpersonal communication are: a. Who initiates interactions? b. How are delays treated? c. What are the topics that are talked about and who among the interactants selects the topics? d. How are topic changes handled? e. How are outside interruptions handled? f. How are interactions terminated? g. How frequently the interactants contact each other? and h. How satisfied the interactants are with the above mentioned rules?

21 Session 18: Interpersonal Communication 1. The different types of socialization processes in organizations are: a. Collective vs. individual socialization process i. Collective socialization involves putting a group of recruits through a common set of experiences together. ii. Individual socialization occurs when recruits are brought into the organization in relative isolation from one another and put through a unique set of experiences b. Formal vs. informal socialization process i. Formal socialization occurs when newcomers are segregated, in one form or another, from regular organizational members ii. Informal socialization processes do not segregate the newcomer in any special way or distinguish the newcomer s role specifically but instead use the informal, laissez-faire socialization for recruits c. Sequential vs. random socialization processes i. Sequential socialization is the degree to which the organization specifies a certain set of steps to be completed in order to advance to the target role ii. Random socialization occurs when the sequence of steps leading to the target role is unknown, ambiguous, or continually changing d. Fixed vs. variable socialization processes: i. When an organization uses fixed socialization, it provides the newcomer with a precise timetable for when to expect progression to the target role. ii. Variable socialization processes provide no real cues to the newcomer as to when to expect movement to the target role e. Serial vs. disjunctive socialization processes i. If an organization uses serial socialization, it uses an experienced organizational member, who occupies a similar role to the one the newcomer will occupy, to help groom the newcomer ii. When the organization uses disjunctive socialization processes, no role models are available or are provided for the newcomer and the newcomer is left alone to discover the ins and outs of the position f. Investiture vs. Divestiture Socialization Processes i. The investiture socialization tactic affirms the personal characteristics and identity that the newcomer brings to the organization we like you the way you are ii. Divestiture socialization, however, seeks to deny and strip away certain personal characteristics of a newcomer we love you, you are perfect, now change 2. The factors that affect superior-subordinate communication are: a. Openness/ closedness of supervisor subordinate communication (Redding, 1972, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011)

22 b. Influence: Pelz Effect (Pelz, 1952, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011): Workers feelings of cooperation in work groups and or organizational control are positively influenced by their leader s upward influence c. Supervisors communication styles and related effectiveness d. Supervisor feedback e. Personal characteristics of supervisors and subordinates

23 Session 19: Interpersonal Communication (Contd.) 1. The interpersonal processes of assimilation in organizations are (Gaillard, Myers, and Seibold, 2010 in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011): a. Becoming familiar and working with supervisors b. Becoming acquainted with co-workers c. Acculturating d. Being recognized e. Becoming involved f. Negotiating roles g. Developing job competency 2. Some ways in which employees may be recognized in an organization could be: a. Informal recognition (Bullis and Back, 1989, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011) b. Positive feedback i. Credibility of supervisor (Cusella, 1987, and O Reilly and Anderson, 1980, in in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011) ii. Feedback by coworkers (Moreland and Levine, 1982, 2001 in in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011) c. Emergent leadership (Fisher, 1986, in in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011) People who emerge as leaders informally through their interactions with the group. More to be covered in leadership communication 3. Some factors that affect how involved employees remain with their work are: a. Social information processing: Talk amongst employees: May start a chain reaction either way (Caldwell & O Reilly, 1982, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011) b. Challenge of various activities c. Organizational expectations communicated formally or informally (George & Bettenhausen, 1990, in Myers, Seibold & Park, 2011) d. Social comparison (Festinger, 1954, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011) e. Identification with organization/ Citizenship (Meyer, 2004, in Myers, Seibold and Park, 2011) f. Benefits of communication networks

24 Session 20: Communication Style 1. Communication style refers to: a. An individual s tendency to communicate via unique patterns of combinations of code, content, and communication rules (Williams & Spiro, 1985) b. Tonal coloring, the metamessage that contexualizes how listeners are expected to accept and interpret verbal messages. (Martin and Nakayama, 2000) and a combination of the above in both language and nonverbal communication (Martin and Nakayama, 2000) 2. Some forms of communicative disposition may be: a. Argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness i. Argumentativeness: 1. Involves an individual s willingness to attack another s arguments while defending his or her own position (Infante & Rancer, 1982, in Daly, 2011) 2. Perceived to be constructive and an indication of the speaker s resistance to persuasive attempts (Kazoleas, 1993, in Daly, 2011) ii. Verbal aggressiveness: 1. Attacking the self-concept of others, attempting to cause psychological pain (Infante & Wigley, 1986, in Daly, 2011) 2. Perceived to be indicative of dislike for others (Infante et al., 1992, in Daly, 2011), dissatisfaction (Anderson & Martin, 1999 in Daly, 2011), low communication skills (Infante et al., 1984, in Daly, 2011), more physical aggression (Kassing, Pearce, & Infante, 2000 in Daly, 2011), defensiveness, and an unwillingness to accept mistakes (Rancer et al., 1992, in Daly, 2011) 3. Opposite of verbal benevolence (Kotowski et al, 2009 in Daly, 2011) b. Communication apprehension: i. Alternatively labelled as reticence, social-communicative anxiety, shyness, and social anxiety ii. Indicates less likelihood to talk in social settings (Garcia et al, 1991, in Daly, 2011), engagement in less eye contact (Garcia et al, 1991, in Daly, 2011), lesser tendency to disclose information (Meleshko & Alden, 1993, in Daly, 2011), lesser conversational sensitivity (Daly et al., 1987, in Daly, 2011), lesser likelihood to select occupations that require communication (Daly & McCroskey, 1975, in Daly, 2011), & less willingness to seek career advancement (McCroskey, 1979, in Daly, 2011) c. Conflict d. Communicative and Social Competence and Skill: i. Conversational sensitivity (Daly et al., 1987, in Daly, 2011)

25 1. Taps an individual s ability to assess and respond to various communicative challenges 2. Factors: 3. Detecting meaning 4. Conversational memory 5. Conversational alternatives 6. Conversational imagination 7. Conversation enjoyment 8. Interpretation 9. Perceiving affinity

26 Session 21: Relational communication 1. The different stages in the development and analysis of relationships are (Gamble and Gamble, 2002): a. Initiating: Icebreakers: Signals that impel us to initiate a conversation or tell us that we have nothing to gain by interacting b. Experimenting: Probing the unknown: Casual and lacking in depth Functions (Knapp, 1992, in Gamble & Gamble, 2002): i. Provides a process for uncovering integrating topics and openings for more penetrating conversations ii. Can serve as audition for a future friendship or a way to increase the scope of a current friendship iii. Provides a safe procedure for indicating who we are and how the other person can come to know us better iv. Allows us to maintain a sense of community with our fellow human beings c. Intensifying: Friendship/ comfortable collegiality i. More common ground ii. More sharing iii. Better mutual understanding (comm. rules redefined) iv. Better prediction of each other s behavior Functions: Basis for collaboration and teamwork I becoming we Alignment of comfort zones results in a more comfortable communication climate in the workplace leading to reduction in friction/ conflict d. Integrating: Unification: Fusion of I and I into We Functions: i. Perception by both members as a team ii. Perceived inclusion into each other s (professional) circles iii. Synchronous professional behaviors e. Bonding: Announcement of commitment to each other e.g. mergers or contracts i. Enhanced co-dependence ii. Possibility of communication rules being redefined leading to increase in strain on relationship Function: We is formalized indicating mutual professional commitments now both are tied to the relationship and significant others know about it f. Differentiating: We breaking up into an I and an I i. Emphasis on how both are a team and still are very different from each other ii. Comfort zones start growing away from each other iii. Communication rules redefined yet again primarily due to the redefinition of satisfaction of either party with existing rules Function

27 Signals uncoupling/ trouble in the relationship g. Circumscribing: Only safe communication occurs i. Decrease in quality and quantity of communication ii. Dissatisfaction with comm. rules redefined in the previous stage continues but not talked about iii. Acceptance by both parties that the end may be near iv. Communication becomes exhausting v. Relationship is usually painful at this stage because of a perceived necessity to keep up pretenses Function: This stage is usually the tipping point. Decision to repair or break the relationship is made at this stage depending upon the intensity of exhaustion and pain h. Stagnating: Acceptance of the end i. Communication is at a standstill ii. Pain and exhaustion much lesser if not completely over Functions: Marks the time to start looking for a new relationship Spring cleaning of the decaying relationship. Cutting losses and figuring out ways to move on. i. Avoiding: The disconnect becomes obvious to significant others i. Unpleasantness creeps in ii. Active attempts to avoid interacting with each other iii. Forced interaction usually leads to aggression against each other that is usually expressed in public as a defence mechanism to warn each other and significant others to not force this interaction Function: Active and expressed conflict. Should be avoided as far as possible. Usually serves to create basis for termination of relationship. j. Termination: End i. Pleasant/ unpleasant ii. Cordial/ bitter iii. Short/ long drawn Function: Time to wind up, close the file, archive, and move on 2. Relational/ Interactional Theory: (Watzlawick, Beavin, & Jackson, 67, in Ross & Anderson, 02) a. Axiom 1: The impossibility of not communicating b. Axiom 2: The content and relationship levels of communication: Our talk reveals not only what we think about our topics but our relation to each other c. Axiom 3: Our communication is filled with attempts to punctuate sequences of events that is, to identify openings, closings, starts stops, causes and effects d. Axiom 4: Messages can be i. Digital: Based on arbitrary agreements (such as are found in language), OR ii. Analogic: Based on more immediate nonverbal relationships e. Axiom 5: Symmetrical and complementary interaction

28 i. Schismogenesis: Two complementary positions grow progressively farther apart, each as a result of the other ii. Confirmation: The capacity to be noticed and perceived in both actuality and potentiality iii. Disconfirmation: One partner communicates as if the other doesn t exist.

29 Session 22: Relational and Maintenance Communication 1. Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM) Theory (Pearce and Cronen, 1980, in Ross & Anderson, 2002) Assumes that that people don t need the same basic understanding about their situation in order to coordinate their behavior through rules Assumes heterogenous social order Analyzes communication episodes by looking for Coherence Control: of the interactants over the situation Valence: the extent to which interactants like or dislike what happens Identifies a hierarchy of contexts extending from intrapersonal content, through speech acts, contracts, and episodes, to life scripts. Rules governing CMM: Constitutive: Organize actors hierarchies of meaning e.g. someone calling a beautiful girl as beautiful will enhance her feeling of self worth on the inside but might be taken as vulgar by the girl depending on who calls her beautiful (Cronen et al., 1982, in Ross & Anderson, 2002) Regulative: Regulation of the perceived meaning of what is said depending upon the situation e.g. ignoring a comment that was intended to be insulting meaning changes. 2. Dialectical Theory (Baxter, 1988, 1990; Baxter & Montgomery, 1996; Cissna Cox & Bochner, 1990; Rawlins, 1992, in Ross & Anderson, 2000): Relationships result from the interplay of perceived opposite forces or contradictions, and from how relational partners negotiate these ever-changing processes. Relationships are not linear, but consist of oscillation between contradictory goals or desires. (Gamble & Gamble, 2002) When opposing goals meet, dialectical tensions are created: Connection vs. autonomy Predictability vs. novelty Openness vs. privacy 3. Buber s (1958 & 1965) Philosophical anthropology I-Thou attitude is the tendency of a person (an individual with his/ her unique traits) to invite and allow dialogue with another unique individual. (Buber, 1958, in Ross & Anderson, 2000) I-It attitude assumes that others can be treated as objects, as things that can be concisely described, measured, manipulated, and accounted for. (Buber, 1958, in Ross & Anderson, 2000) Genuine dialogue: Spoken or silent communication where each of the participants really has in mind the other or others in their present and

30 particular being and turns to them with the intention of establishing a living mutual relation between him and them. Technical dialogue: Appears to have a give and take quality but is actually designed only to achieve a specified end through objective communication Monologue: a dominant voice divorced from the expectation of a response

31 Session 23: Organizational Communication 1. Scientific management theory (Taylor, 1913, 1947, in Ross & Anderson, 2000) a. Organization as machine: Organizations or factories were big mechanisms that fitted together smaller and basically interchangeable mechanisms known as workers b. Instead of demanding higher output or productivity of labor [I-It Martin Buber], and to back those demands with pressures or threats, by matching men, tools, and the tasks they were required to perform, it was possible to increase productivity without placing increased physical burdens upon the men [possibly I-Though Martin Buber???] c. Limitation to this theory: Does not take into account the rich uniqueness of the individual human person (Ross & Anderson, 2000) 2. Administrative Theory (Fayol, 1949, in Ross & Anderson, 2000) a. Application of scientific thinking to the work done by those who administer managerial practices b. Fayol s five part analysis of administrative science principles (suggested by Eisenberg & Goodall, 1997, in Ross & Anderson, 2000) i. Planning: Anticipating a probable future ii. Organizing: Creating clearly understood divisions of labor in hierarchical, or, in Fayol s terms, scalar form iii. Commanding: Setting goals realistically iv. Coordinating: Relating diverse employees to each other s interests, and to those of the organization v. Controlling: Evaluation of work styles and subsequent rewards 3. Bureaucratic Theory (Baughman, 1989; Blau, 1956; Eisenberg & Goodall, 1997, in Ross & Anderson, 2000) a. Bureaucracy is the rational structuring of organizational roles for maximum efficiency (Weber, 1946, in Ross & Anderson, 2000) b. Assumptions about how organizations should be structured (Baughman, 1989; Blau, 1956; Eisenberg & Goodall, 1997, in Ross & Anderson, 2000) i. Division of labor: creation of functional roles ii. Clear explicit definitions of job responsibilities (members understand what is expected of them) iii. Standardized procedures, well understood by all iv. Hierarchical structures of authority (responsibility to superiors and coordination of subordinates) v. Technical competence as a criterion for selection of and rewards to personnel vi. Management and other roles presumed to be ongoing responsibilities, creating careers, barring ineffectivess (no capricious termination)

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33 Session 24: Organizational Communication (Contd.) 1. Conversational Autonomy Theory (Taylor, 1995; Taylor, Cooren, Giroux, and Robichaud, 1996, in Ross & Anderson, 2000) Organizations are self-organizing systems Communication produces organizations (Autonomous model) in which organizations are seen as self-shaping: Each organization creates its own internal coherence through conversations (an interactive flow of discourse, involving multiple participants in quasi-synchronized alteration of verbal and nonverbal expressions) Conversation creates organization because it presumes an organized and cooperative interpretation Organizations operate as a result of a pattern of these implicit understandings that cannot be seen or heard clearly in isolated statements Internal disturbances in organizations serve to maintain the organizations and facilitate the shift potentially into a higher and more creative level of functioning 2. Organizational culture theory (Ross & Anderson, 2000) Culture (in terms of organizational communication): refers to the cohesive patterns of making sense of the world that characterize a particular group of people in a particular time and place Organizational culture: refers to the above in the context of a particular organization/ specific roles, norms, rituals, and storytelling practices that distinguish them from other organizations even in their own industry Concepts in OC Theory o Emic knowing: The understanding, more or less from within the assumptions of a cultural group, that you would achieve by knowing how an insider perceives as a member o Etic knowing: Understanding about an organization by virtue of its connections with the outside world o Ethnography: Studying an organization through immersion o Ritual: Familiar activities members of an organization engage in with each other at regular intervals o Performance: Attempt to manage identities in public Passion-related performances: Primary function is to give workers lives a dramatic interest that helps people adapt within the culture Sociality performances: Maintain social roles and relationships within the organization Organizational politics: Enact or demonstrate power relations. Who is helpful, controlling, regulative, subservient etc.

34 Enculturation: How new members are integrated into an ongoing social structure Implications of OC Theory o Inclusivity o Prescription: More well defined expectations from members and the organization We are like this only o Some theorists see it as a means to describe organizations as complex cultural achievements o Other theorists want to use the concepts to diagnose organizational problems and intervene as managers and consultants to resolve these problems/ improve these organizations

35 Session 25: Collaboration in Organizations 1. The term Communication climate refers to the emotional tone of a relationship between people who are interacting (Wood, 1998). 2. The distinct types of communication climate in organizations may be (Wood, 1998): a. Supportive climate, which is characterized by: i. Collaboration and teamwork ii. High morale and motivation of employees which results in 1. Loyalty 2. Commitment 3. Efficiency 4. Low turnover b. Defensive climate which is characterized by: i. Intra and inter-organizational conflict ii. Low morale and motivation, which may result in 1. Feeling of instability 2. Manipulation 3. Lowered commitment and efficiency 4. Disloyalty 3. Some ways in which healthy communication climates may be created and sustained in organizations could be (Wood, 1998): a. Accept and confirm others b. Affirm and assert yourself c. Respect diversity among people d. Time your conflict effectively: i. Try to engage in conflict when both people are able to be fully present and mindful ii. Be flexible about when you deal with differences iii. Try bracketing: Mark off peripheral issues for later discussion e. Show grace (forgiveness/ putting other s needs before ours) when appropriate 4. Collaboration refers to a process in which individuals strive to labor together (Stewart & Logan, 2002) Collaboration (Marshall, 1995) a principle based process of working together that produces trust, integrity and breakthrough results by building true consensus, ownership and alignment in all aspects of the organization.

36 Session 26: Groups and Teams 1. Group: Three or more individuals who interact over time, depend on one another, and follow shared rules of conduct to reach a common goal (Wood, 1998) Team: Special kind of group that is characterized by different and complimentary resources of members and by a strong sense of collective identity (Wood, 1998) 2. People may join groups for the following reasons (Seiler & Beall, 2005; Argyle, 1996, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996): a. Satisfaction of psychological and social needs (e.g. attention, affection, belongingness) (Seiler & Beall, 2005; Argyle, 1996, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996) b. Membership helps with the achievement of larger goals due to division of labor (Seiler & Beall, 2005; Argyle, 1996, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996) c. Provision of multiple sources of information and knowledge that might not be available to one individual that can aid the above (Seiler & Beall, 2005) d. Meeting the need for security (Seiler & Beall, 2005) e. Contribution to an individual s sense of positive social identity (Seiler & Beall, 2005) f. Social facilitation (Argyle, 1996) 3. Individualist & Collectivist Orientations: A comparison of small groups (Beebe & Masterson, 2003, in Seiler and Beall, 2005) Individualist Assumptions Individuals make better decisions than groups do Leaders and not the group members should do the planning Individuals should be rewarded for their performance Competition among individual group members is good The best way to get things done is to work with individuals as opposed to an entire group Groups or teams are often perceived as a waste of time Collectivist Assumptions The group s decision should supersede individual decisions The group should do the planning Reward and recognition should be shared among group members Teamwork is more important than competition The group is the best way to accomplish goals The commitment to the group is strongest when the group reaches consensus

37 Session 27: Groups and Teams (Contd.) 1. Membership experience in workplace groups (Allcorn, 1996, in Cathcart, Samovar & Henman, 1996) Homogenized Institutionalized Autocratic Intentional Members fear consequences of speaking out and taking action Members feel helpless because they are attacked when they speak Security in being unnoticed Members feel group has lost its purpose Members fear consequences of speaking out in other than prescribed manner/ taking action without prior approval Members feel helpless because they are attacked when they deviate Safety in following rules Members feel they have lost their purpose in trying to follow rules Members fear consequences of speaking out/ taking action without explicit approval of leader Members feel helpless because of leader s inflexible attitude Unsafe and insecure because of leader s unpredictability Individuals feel a loss of personal purpose to boss s whims Members are eager to offer their point of view Members feel safe because everyone is on equal footing Safe and secure because of equality Members feel a continued sense of purpose Frustration: No direction of group Frustration because of rigid institutional processes Frustration because of inflexibility of leader Frustrations openly discussed & solved 2. Social Loafing or Ringleman Effect (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008) is the tendency of people to work less hard in a group than they would individually Reasons why employees engage in social loafing are: Their individual contributions are less noticeable in a group They prefer to see others carry the workload Some ways in which managers could deal with social loafing among their employees could be (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008): Definition of roles and tasks to maximize individual interests Raising of accountability by making performance expectations clear and identifiable Tying individual rewards to their performance contributions to the group

38 3. Some factors that can influencing group effectiveness are (Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2008): Diversity consensus dilemma: The tendency for the existence of diversity among group members to make it harder for them to work together, even though the diversity itself expands the skills and perspectives available for problem solving Status congruence: Occurs when a person s position within the group is equivalent in status to positions the individual holds outside the group. FIRO-B (Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation) Theory: Groups whose members have compatible needs are likely to be more effective than groups whose members are more incompatible. Group Size: As a group becomes larger, more and more people are available to divide up the work and accomplish needed tasks Group Dynamics: Activities, interactions and sentiments

39 Session 28: Teams and Compliance 1. The norms that can foster competent group interaction and the behaviours and roles they manifest themselves in may be tabulated as follows (Burkel-Rothfuss, 1985) Norms Communication Behaviors Relevant Roles Attending to process Accepting feelings Adapting to feedback Attending to/ commenting on the group s method & communication Owning feelings; acknowledging others feelings Checking perceptions; seeking feedback Manager Encourager Negotiator Negotiator Info manager Basic communication competence category Controlling Expressing Symbolizing, Processing, Adapting Objectively diagnosing problems Coordinating information; systematically analyzing problems Analyst Negotiator Symbolizing Processing Controlling Sharing responsibility Verbally and nonverbally participating; acknowledging responsibility for the group Gatekeeper Encourager Symbolizing Processing Adapting Controlling Expressing 2. Minimizing power differences (Fiarhurst, 1993, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002) a. Value congruence b. Non routine problem solving c. Inside markers d. Support e. Coaching 3. Maximizing power differences (Fairhurst, 1993, in Modaff & DeWine, 2002) a. Performance monitoring b. Face threatening acts: Criticisms and rebuke c. Competitive conflict: Interruptions and non supportive statements d. Power games

40 Session 29: Persuasive Communication 1. Inartistic and artistic persuasive appeals (Anderson & Ross, 2002) Inartistic means of persuasion: emphasizes the discovery of the facts of a given case that are largely external to the choices of the individuals concerned. They are simply 'found' in the situation or in the external inducements e.g. oaths & torture (Aristotle, 1954, in Anderson & Ross, 2002) Artistic means of persuasion: Facts must speak for themselves; they must be interpreted and presented creatively in order for them to have an influence on an audience. (Aristotle, 1954, in Anderson & Ross, 2002) 2. Artistic proof: Choices rhetors make when they seek to persuade others. The different types of artistic proof may be Ethos: 'Personal proof' or 'ethical proof' acquires its value from the person who presents it. Depends upon: Credibility: Speaker's reputation. Expertise Trustworthiness Dynamism: Auditors admire rhetors who have enthusiastic and animated presentation styles Pathos: refers to the rhetorical use of messages that appeal to an audience's emotions and passion. People believe what they want to believe, what they feel like believing. Misconceptions about the role of emotions in persuasive communication: (Hauser, 1986, in Anderson & Ross, 2002) Emotions are not 'things' that can be stored up or expended like commodities They are better understood as judgments and interpretations, unique to each individual, that develop as a result of a complex interplay of psychological and physiological factors People believe that emotions come largely from outside the self. They are inner interpretations affectively tied to outer experiences, i.e. emotions in relation to something else outside the self (intentionality: we feel what we want to feel) Logos: Persuasion should be based on logical arguments and reasons that a rhetor can present tot an audience. Information that is presented in a precise order and accompanied by statistical support, examples, and relevant testimony encourages listeners to arrive at a specific conclusion recommended by the rhetor. Syllogism: Form of logical reasoning that moves from major premise through minor premise to conclusion. e.g. 'A' has a characteristic feature 'x'. 'B' is a subset of 'A'. Hence 'B' will also have the characteristic feature 'x'. Enthymemes: One of the two premises is implicit. e.g. 'A' has a characteristic feature 'x'. This characteristic feature 'x' manifests itself in some form in 'B'. [Hence, the listeners assume, that 'B' must be a subset of 'A' in order for it to be exhibiting characterisitic, 'x'.