States of. - Consciousness C7:3. Myers PSYCHOLOGY. Chapter 7

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Myers PSYCHOLOGY Chapter 7 States of Consciousness C7:1 Outline - Consciousness and Information Processing - Sleep and Dreams Biological Rhythms

- Drugs and Consciousness Dependence and Addiction Psychoactive Drugs Influences on Drug Use - Near-Death Experiences C7:2 - Consciousness C7:3

Distinction between Automatic vs. Controlled Information Processing: Parallel vs. Serial, Practiced vs. Novel, Easy vs.

indicate correctly whether lines are horizontal or not (right) - Effect of wakefulness on performance (+1) C7:4 - Performance deteriorates rapidly

, performance on reasoning task (below) and detection task (right) C7:5 C7:6 Ellen Langer s Concept of Mindfulness - Mindlessness Act automatically.

1 Myers PSYCHOLOGY Chapter 7 States of Consciousness C7:1 Outline - Consciousness and Information Processing - Sleep and Dreams Biological Rhythms The Rhythm of Sleep Why do we Sleep? Dreams - Hypnosis Facts and Falsehoods Is Hypnosis an Altered State? - Drugs and Consciousness Dependence and Addiction Psychoactive Drugs Influences on Drug Use - Near-Death Experiences C7:2 - Consciousness C7:3 Awareness of selves and environment Diverse states illustrated to left and below Consciousness and Information Processing - Cognitive Psychology Distinction between Automatic vs. Controlled Information Processing: Parallel vs. Serial, Practiced vs. Novel, Easy vs. Effortful, - Biology Split Brain studies Blindsight: Brain injured patient shown circle with lines inside will report not seeing anything, BUT will indicate correctly whether lines are horizontal or not (right) - Effect of wakefulness on performance (+1) C7:4 - Performance deteriorates rapidly after being awake for long period of time: e.g., performance on reasoning task (below) and detection task (right) C7:5 C7:6 Ellen Langer s Concept of Mindfulness - Mindlessness Act automatically. Thoughtless application of old ways of thinking to new situations. - Trapped by categories: Think of objects according to category they fit into. See world too rigidly. - Automatic Behavior: Act without thinking. Perform acts in inappropriate context. (e.g., pour salt in coffee) - Single Perspective: Only one way to accomplish goal. Origins - Repetition leads to automaticity, performing acts mechanically, by rote, without attention - Premature cognitive commitments, commit to one view; stick with even if wrong - Teaching there is one way to do something, other ways wrong, or focus on outcome of learning not process. 1

2 C7:7 - Mindfulness Actively make new distinctions (vs. using existing categories). Number of positive consequences - Heightened sense of situational awareness. More situated in present. - Pay attention plus conscious effort to be "in the moment" and not ignore context. More aware of context. Greater sensitivity to environment. - Conscious control over thoughts and behavior relative to context. Open to new information. Create new categories for perceptions. More aware of multiple perspectives. Focus on process, not outcome. Dog chew toy example - People told what objects ARE, or what they MAY be. Then situation arises that requires eraser. People told object IS dog's chew toy less likely to see toy as eraser. Subjective "feel": heightened state of involvement and wakefulness, of being in present. Eastern overtones. Waking Consciousness - Daydreams and Fantasies Peaks between 12noon and 2pm Almost universal: Sex (M>W), Everyday events Usually constructive Fantasy Prone Personality - Imagines and recalls experiences with lifelike vividness - Spends considerable time fantasizing Daydreams increase during boring tasks - e.g., vigilance tasks in which participant responds to infrequently occurring targets; increase in daydreams associated with decreased identification of targets C7:8 Outline - Consciousness and Information Processing - Sleep and Dreams Biological Rhythms The Rhythm of Sleep Why do we Sleep? Dreams - Hypnosis Facts and Falsehoods Is Hypnosis an Altered State? - Drugs and Consciousness Dependence and Addiction Psychoactive Drugs Influences on Drug Use - Near-Death Experiences C7:9 Biological Rhythms - Periodic physiological fluctuations Annual: Animal migrations, Seasonal Affective Disorder? (SAD) 28 Day: Menstrual Cycle - Thinking Critically about PMS Performance does not vary across cycle Placebo = Medication in effectiveness Selective memory and Misattributions? (+1) But Moos (1968) (+2) But Markum (1976) (+3) 24 Hour: Sleep and Wakefulness 90 Minute: Stages of sleep C7:10 Premenstrual Syndrome C7:11 C7:12 - Moos (1968) Survey of 839 women on 47 symptoms (8 clusters) - Pain: stiffness, headache, cramps, - Negative Affect: crying, loneliness, anxiety, Clear difference in reports for last menstrual cycle (below) No difference for women in Menstrual Phase Negative Pain Affect Pre-menstrual Menstrual Inter-menstrual (lowest) 2

- Markum (1976) Administered Moos scale to 94 women at different phases of menstrual cycle Little difference between scores at different phases: e.g.

Peak period: Evening to Morning shift with age Jet lag: bright light helps to reset biological clock - Sleep Periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness - Stages

generally relaxed, but other body systems are active C7:14 Sleep and Dreams Measuring sleep activity C7:15 Brain Waves and Sleep Stages - Alpha Waves Slow waves of a

3 - Markum (1976) Administered Moos scale to 94 women at different phases of menstrual cycle Little difference between scores at different phases: e.g., negative affect (below) C7:13 Sleep and Dreams - Circadian Rhythm Biological clock Regular bodily rhythms that occur on 24 hour cycle: wakefulness, body temperature, Peak period: Evening to Morning shift with age Jet lag: bright light helps to reset biological clock - Sleep Periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness - Stages of Sleep Different forms of brain activity (+1 to +4) REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep (+1 to +4) - Recurring sleep stage, Vivid dreams - Paradoxical sleep : Muscles are generally relaxed, but other body systems are active C7:14 Sleep and Dreams Measuring sleep activity C7:15 Brain Waves and Sleep Stages - Alpha Waves Slow waves of a relaxed, awake brain - Delta Waves Large, slow waves of deep sleep - Hallucinations False sensory experiences Hypnogogic C7:16 Typical Nightly Sleep Stages C7:17 Typical Nightly Sleep Stages C7:18 3

individuals and species (+1 +2) - Sleep debt accumulates across 2 weeks or more - Sleep

Fatigue - Impaired Concentration - Immune Suppression - Irritability - Slowed Performance

4 Why do we Sleep? C7:19 Species Variation in Sleep C7:20 - Considerable variation in duration of sleep across individuals and species (+1 +2) - Sleep debt accumulates across 2 weeks or more - Sleep Deprivation Dement (1997): 80% of students sleep deprived Many negative effects of Sleep Loss - Fatigue - Impaired Concentration - Immune Suppression - Irritability - Slowed Performance Accidents: planes, cars and trucks, (+3 slides) Exposure to Danger and Sleep 20 C7:21 Sleep Deprivation C7:22 N = r = -.64 Total Sleep Exposure to Danger C7:23 C7:24 Sleep Disorders - Insomnia Persistent problems in falling or staying asleep - Narcolepsy Uncontrollable sleep attacks - Sleep Apnea Cessation of breathing Often associated with snoring Repeatedly awakes sufferer 4

Night Terrors and Nightmares C7:25 - Night Terrors Occur within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep, usually during Stage 4 High arousal; appear terrified More common in young children - Nightmares Occur

5 Night Terrors and Nightmares C7:25 - Night Terrors Occur within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep, usually during Stage 4 High arousal; appear terrified More common in young children - Nightmares Occur towards morning During REM sleep C7:26 Dreams - What do we dream? 8/10 dreams marked by negative emotions: Failing, Being attacked or rejected, Experiencing misfortune Sexual: uncommon, 1/10 M, 1/30 W Gender: 50/50 for W, 65% M for M Daily events: meeting, exam, family, Traces of previous days experiences and thoughts: Tetris, Trauma, Animals (Hunters vs. Urban) External sensory stimuli occasionally incorporated into dream Do not remember most dreams unless we wake and stay awake for brief time C7:27 Why do we dream? - Sigmund Freud- The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) Wish fulfillment Discharge otherwise unacceptable feelings Manifest Content: remembered story line Latent Content: underlying, uncensored meaning - Symbolic expression - As Information Processing Helps consolidate day s memories - Stimulates neural development in young (+1) - Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis - REM Rebound REM sleep increases following REM sleep deprivation Sleep / Dream Patterns and Age C7:28 C7:29 - Dreaming: Like Perception or Imagining? Lucid dreamers trained to perform circular eye-movement when they started to dream Eye movements compared to Perception of circular moving stimulus or (waking) imagination of such a movement Dreaming more like perception than imagination (below) Outline - Consciousness and Information Processing - Sleep and Dreams Biological Rhythms The Rhythm of Sleep Why do we Sleep? Dreams - Hypnosis Facts and Falsehoods Is Hypnosis an Altered State? - Drugs and Consciousness Dependence and Addiction Psychoactive Drugs Influences on Drug Use - Near-Death Experiences C7:30 5

Hypnosis Social interaction in which hypnotist suggests to subject that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts or behaviors will spontaneously occur A relaxed state - Controversial for many years

people simulating hypnosis can do many of same feats as hypnotized people. That is, feats not exceptional (e.g., feats of strength, left).

Uncritical portrayal in media C7:32 C7:33 Hypnotic Susceptibility - Can anyone experience hypnosis?

6 Hypnosis Social interaction in which hypnotist suggests to subject that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts or behaviors will spontaneously occur A relaxed state - Controversial for many years Mesmer s Animal Magnetism Svengali in novel Trilby Exaggerated / unproven claims Hypnosis not necessary for many actions / experiences (+1) C7:31 Hypnosis - Explaining misconceptions Unhypnotized people simulating hypnosis can do many of same feats as hypnotized people. That is, feats not exceptional (e.g., feats of strength, left). Faking: Hillside Strangler claimed another personality under hypnosis. Rejected on basis of sessions with Martin Orne, psychologist / psychiatrist who specialized in hypnosis. Uncritical portrayal in media C7:32 C7:33 Hypnotic Susceptibility - Can anyone experience hypnosis? Qualified yes, but to varying degrees Hypnotic Suggestibility or Susceptibility or Ability - Openness to suggestion, Ability to focus attention inwardly, Ability to become imaginatively absorbed Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (Hilgard) - Series of tasks (e.g., swaying, pulling apart interlocked fingers, hallucinating presence of buzzing fly, post-hypnotic amnesia) low hypnotizable, 5-7 medium, 8-12 high (+1) - Posthypnotic Amnesia: supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis Role of attributions for one s experiences - Eyes tired fatigue or suggestion? C7:34 Hypnosis and Memory - Can hypnosis enhance recall of forgotten events? Mistaken belief that mind contains all our experiences (Loftus) Problem of confabulation - False recollections - Continued belief of therapists in hypnotic recall Age regression: relive early experiences - Actions not completely faithful to age (e.g., spelling) - Questionable evidence True (1949): 82% correct about day of Xmas at 10, 7, 4 yrs But, Orne: Not what day is it? but is it Mon? and True knew answer. Also, most 4 yr olds don t know days of week - Regression to past lives Reports have many problems: e.g., facts not known C7:35 Hypnosis and Actions - Can hypnosis force people to act against their will? Hypnotized subjects will carry out seemingly dangerous acts (e.g., put hand into acid ) But so will non-hypnotized people - Orne & Evans (1965): Control group instructed to pretend they were hypnotized - Non-hypnotized subjects performed same acts as hypnotized ones Later in social psychology we will learn about power of authority to get people to act in undesirable ways C7:36 6

Hypnosis and Therapy C7:37 - Can hypnosis be therapeutic?

g., addictions) Effects not related to hypnotic susceptibility, so perhaps not hypnosis per se Effect on some physical symptoms (e.g., warts) appears to be same as non-hypnotic suggestion Hypnosis and Pain - Can hypnosis alleviate pain?

- Dissociation A split in consciousness Allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others - Attention Same effect from distraction and relaxation (Lamaze) PET scans show effect

7 Hypnosis and Therapy C7:37 - Can hypnosis be therapeutic? Posthypnotic Suggestion - Suggestion to be carried out after client no longer hypnotized - Used by some clinicians to control undesired symptoms and behaviors Seems to work for some conditions (e.g., obesity) but not others (e.g., addictions) Effects not related to hypnotic susceptibility, so perhaps not hypnosis per se Effect on some physical symptoms (e.g., warts) appears to be same as non-hypnotic suggestion Hypnosis and Pain - Can hypnosis alleviate pain? - Yes: 50% some relief, 10% major surgery - Related to hypnotizability ( ) Explanation? - Dissociation A split in consciousness Allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others - Attention Same effect from distraction and relaxation (Lamaze) PET scans show effect in attention regions, rather than sensory Evidence with pain and other sensory systems that sensation not affected by hypnosis (e.g., color blind) Claims on internet excessive, relative to evidence. C7:38 C7:39 C7:40 Hypnosis and Sickle-Cell Anemia (Dinges et al, 1997) C7:41 Is hypnosis an Altered State? Much controversy about how to explain hypnosis - Divided Consciousness Theory Special state: Extreme form of what we all experience daily (i.e., doing one thing and thinking about another) - Hidden Observer: Hilgard s term describing a hypnotized subject s awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis (+1) Not unique trance state for most researchers - Social Influence Theory Expectations: act role of good hypnotic subjects Social influence theory: power of authority - Perhaps combination of factors (+2) - Hilgard s Hidden observer studies C7:42 7

Explaining Hypnosis (p. 295) C7:43 Outline - Consciousness and Information Processing - Sleep and Dreams Biological Rhythms The Rhythm of Sleep Why do we Sleep?

- Drugs and Consciousness Dependence and Addiction Psychoactive Drugs Influences on Drug Use - Near-Death Experiences C7:44 Dependence and Addiction - Psychoactive Drug: chemical changes perceptions

8 Explaining Hypnosis (p. 295) C7:43 Outline - Consciousness and Information Processing - Sleep and Dreams Biological Rhythms The Rhythm of Sleep Why do we Sleep? Dreams - Hypnosis Facts and Falsehoods Is Hypnosis an Altered State? - Drugs and Consciousness Dependence and Addiction Psychoactive Drugs Influences on Drug Use - Near-Death Experiences C7:44 Dependence and Addiction - Psychoactive Drug: chemical changes perceptions and mood - With repeated use, various effects often observed Tolerance: (+1 +2) Withdrawal - Discomfort and distress with discontinued use Physical Dependence - Physiological need for a drug - Marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms Psychological Dependence - Psychological need to use a drug - E.g., to relieve negative emotions - Solomon s Opponent-Process Theory (+3) C7:45 Tolerance C7:46 - Need for progressively larger doses to achieve same effect (+1) C7:47 C7:48 Solomon Opponent-Process Theory of Addiction 8

- Myths about Addiction (following FALSE) Addictive drugs quickly corrupt: Medical use of heroin (e.g., UK) Addictions cannot be overcome voluntarily; therapy a must: U.S. soldiers in Vietnam.

9 - Myths about Addiction (following FALSE) Addictive drugs quickly corrupt: Medical use of heroin (e.g., UK) Addictions cannot be overcome voluntarily; therapy a must: U.S. soldiers in Vietnam. Smoking. Drinking. Addiction covers any repetitive, pleasure-seeking behaviors: Perhaps overly liberal in labeling behaviors as addictions (e.g., TV addict) - Personality and Drug Abuse Elkins et al (2004): year-old twins (568 girls and 479 boys) Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire and diagnostic interviews Parent alcohol dependence associated with greater negative C7:49 emotionality, aggression, stress reaction, and alienation and lower wellbeing: alcohol as self-medication for negative emotions? Parent drug disorders associated with lower constraint, control, harm avoidance, and traditionalism and higher social potency: drug abuse manifestation of risk-taking and sensation-seeking? Psychoactive Drugs Major categories: Depressant, Stimulant, Hallucinogen (T7.3 below) C7:50 C7:51 - Depressants ( Downers ) - Reduce neural activity and slow body function - E.g., Alcohol, Barbiturates, Opiates Alcohol (later discussion) Barbiturates - Depress CNS activity - Reduce anxiety but impair memory and judgment Opiates: Opium and derivatives (Morphine, Heroin) - Depress neural activity - Temporarily lessen pain and anxiety - Stimulants ( uppers ) C7:52 - Excite neural activity and arouse body function: E.g., Caffeine, Nicotine, Amphetamines, Cocaine (+1), Ecstasy Nicotine - Addictive: tops some ratings by experts (+2) - Major killer: lung cancer and other diseases Amphetamines - Stimulate neural activity - Accelerate energy and mood changes - Hallucinogens - Psychedelic drugs distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in absence of sensory input LSD: Lysergic acid diethylamide (Acid) - A powerful hallucinogenic drug Marijuana (THC is major active ingredient) - Triggers variety of effects, including mild hallucinations Cocaine Euphoria and Crash C7:53 C7:54 9

Influences on Drug Use - Changes across time in use and attitudes Increased use during 1970s, then decrease, and subsequent increase Perceived Risk / Harm one factor (+1) - U of Michigan survey of

C7:55 C7:56 Trends in Drug Use (F7.15) C7:57 Perceived Marijuana Risk (F7.

10 Influences on Drug Use - Changes across time in use and attitudes Increased use during 1970s, then decrease, and subsequent increase Perceived Risk / Harm one factor (+1) - U of Michigan survey of high school seniors Great risk in marijuana use % 79% 57% - Support for Legalization of Marijuana % 17% 40% - Marijuana Use (+2 +3) Changes in drinking and smoking C7:55 C7:56 Trends in Drug Use (F7.15) C7:57 Perceived Marijuana Risk (F7.16) C7:58 C7:59 - Biological Influences Genetic component - Psychological and Cultural Influences Perception of risk (previous slides) Psychological state: Depression, Anxiety, Stress Cultural Effects - Nation differences in overall rate of alcohol consumption (+1) and use by young people (+2) - Low rates: Amish, Mennonites, Mormons, Orthodox Jews - Blacks lower rates for drinking, smoking, cocaine - Higher rates: Aboriginals (American Indian) (+3) Peer effects - Overestimate peer use - Underestimate peer concerns - Alcohol Consumption across Cultures Annual Beer and Wine Consumption (Liters per person) Beer Wine France Italy Germany New Zealand Australia United Kingdom United States 87 7 Sweden Style of consumption may also vary E.g., binge drinking in UK C7:60 10

C7:61 - Spicer et al: analyzed epidemiological data collected C7:62 on 3,084 Northern Plains

(non-urban) - Rates of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) alcohol dependence compared to

to other studies using non-random samples; confounding variables Hypotheses for effects

impacts Women Need for further research emphasized - Negative Aspects of Alcohol Consumption

15 in text) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: brains of normal and FAS 6 wk infants (below right) and

11 C7:61 - Spicer et al: analyzed epidemiological data collected C7:62 on 3,084 Northern Plains and Southwest American Indians since Lived on or near (20 miles) reservations (non-urban) - Rates of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) alcohol dependence compared to US average Men Women NP Higher Higher SW Higher Equal Rates low relative to stereotypes and to other studies using non-random samples; confounding variables Hypotheses for effects Disruption of culture overall more impact on men Disruption more severe for NP, therefore impacts Women Need for further research emphasized - Negative Aspects of Alcohol Consumption Brains of alcoholic (F7.15 in text) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: brains of normal and FAS 6 wk infants (below right) and underdeveloped corpus callosum (top right) (+1 +2) Automobile accidents (+3 +4) Disease (+5) Crime and Violence: Many violent crimes implicate alcohol (+6) C7:63 C7:64 C7:65 C7:66 11

C7:67 C7:68 Outline - Consciousness and Information Processing - Sleep and Dreams Biological Rhythms The Rhythm of Sleep Why do we Sleep?

- Drugs and Consciousness Dependence and Addiction Psychoactive Drugs Influences on Drug Use - Near-Death Experiences Near Death Experiences C7:69 - Near Death Experience Altered state reported after

hallucinations and temporal lobe seizures Similar experiences can be elicited by stimulating temporal lobe, oxygen deprivation, Near Death Experiences - Interpretation of Near Death Experiences

Dualism - Mind and Body are distinct entities that interact - More compatible with mystical explanation Monism - Mind and Body different aspects of same thing - More compatible with naturalistic

12 C7:67 C7:68 Outline - Consciousness and Information Processing - Sleep and Dreams Biological Rhythms The Rhythm of Sleep Why do we Sleep? Dreams - Hypnosis Facts and Falsehoods Is Hypnosis an Altered State? - Drugs and Consciousness Dependence and Addiction Psychoactive Drugs Influences on Drug Use - Near-Death Experiences Near Death Experiences C7:69 - Near Death Experience Altered state reported after close brush with death Sense of being dead, out of body experience (floating), tunnel, body of light, 12-40% of such patients 8,000,000 Americans in one Gallup poll Often similar to drug-induced hallucinations and temporal lobe seizures Similar experiences can be elicited by stimulating temporal lobe, oxygen deprivation, Near Death Experiences - Interpretation of Near Death Experiences Mystical or Naturalistic explanation? Dualism - Mind and Body are distinct entities that interact - More compatible with mystical explanation Monism - Mind and Body different aspects of same thing - More compatible with naturalistic explanation C7:70 Correlates of Out of Body Experiences (OBE) C7:71 - High prevalence of OBEs obtained from special samples People with schizophrenia: 42% (Blackmore, 1986a) Individuals highly prone to fantasy: 88% (Wilson & Barber, 1983) Individuals who are highly hypnotizable: 44% (Cardena, 1988) People who use marijuana: 44% (Tart, 1971) College students: 25% Believers in parapsychology: 48% - 2/3rds of people who report OBEs report multiple experiences, rather than single experience Religious Experience - Religious Experience Much interest in determining whether natural explanation exists for religious experiences, perhaps another altered state of consciousness C7:72 - Several lines of research Differences between people who have mystical religious experiences, vs. those who do not - Relation to dissociative states, hypnotizability, openness to fantasy, Neurotheology - Changes in brain functioning during religious experience - Stimulating religious experiences by stimulating brain (Persinger) - Reduced levels of serotonin - Temporal lobe epilepsy 12

States of Consciousness

Myers PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 7 States of Consciousness Waking Consciousness Consciousness our awareness of ourselves and our environments Sleep and Dreams Biological Rhythms periodic physiological