Review Session 1. Control Systems and Homeostasis. Figure 1.8 A simple control system. Biol 219 Review Sessiono 1 Fall 2016
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1 Control Systems and Homeostasis Review Session 1 Regulated variables are kept within normal range by control mechanisms Keeps near set point, or optimum value Control systems local and reflex Input signal Integrating center Output signal 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.8 A simple control system Figure 6.16 Steps in a reflex pathway 2016 Pearson Education, Inc Pearson Education, Inc. 1
2 Figure 1.12 Negative and positive feedback 4. Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback control. Stimulus: change in Response: 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Four Common Bond Types Two strong bonds, Covalent and Ionic require energy to make or break 1) Covalent bonds Chemical Bonds Two weak weaker bonds, Hydrogen and Van der Waals forces require less energy to make or break Pearson Education, Inc. 8 2
3 Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds Nonpolar covalent bonds -electrons are shared equally between atoms C H : Polar covalent bonds - el ectrons are shared unequally O H : Shared electrons spend more time orbiting one nucleus than the other: the atom with a stronger pull on electrons has a partial negative charge (δ - ); the atom with the weaker pull has a partial positive charge (δ + ) 2) Ionic bonds Chemical Bonds Ionic bonds in a salt crystal C H C C O=O δ - O H δ + δ - O C δ + δ - N H δ ) Hydrogen Bonds Chemical Bonds Water is a polar solvent - polar molecules and ions are relatively soluble in H 2 O (hydrophilic) H2O molecules form hydration spheres around ions & small polar molecules to keep them in solution - nonpolar molecules are relatively insoluble in H 2 O (hydrophobic)
4 Acid-base Properties of Solutions Acid-base reactions involve the transfer of H + ions between molecules and solutions. H2O H + + OH Pure water, neutral solution: The ph scale acid - H + donor, increases [H + ] of solution base - H + acceptor, decreases [H + ] of solution H2O is the medium for acid-base reactions and is involved in acid-base reactions. [H + ] = 10-7 M ph = 7 ph = log [H + ] 10-9 M [H + ] = 10-7 M base Dissociation of water: H2O H + + OH 10-5 M acid hydrogen ion hydroxide ion Functional groups partial molecules commonly found in organic compounds; each has specific chemical properties Acts as an acid, releases H + Acts as a base, accepts H Pearson Education, Inc. 4
5 Graphs Independent variable on the X-axis Dependent variable on the Y-axis Bar graphs Line graphs Scatter plots 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.15a Graphs 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Biomolecules Monomers Polymers Carbohydrates monosaccharides polysaccharides Lipids fatty acids triglycerides Proteins amino acids polypeptides Nucleic Acids nucleotides DNA, RNA Dehydration (condensation) reactions build up polymers from monomers. A-OH + H-B A B + H2O a water molecule is removed to form the new covalent bond Hydrolysis reactions break down polymers into monomers. A B + H2O A-OH+ H-B a water molecule is added to split the covalent bond 5
6 Carbohydrates Carbohydrates 3 categories contain carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen, usually in a 1:2:1 ratio general formula: (CH 2 O) x n; n = # of C atoms highly polar molecules: many OH groups water soluble simple carbohydrates are sugars (mono- and disaccharides) glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) is a major energy source for cells Carbohydrates Monosaccharides (simple sugars) pentoses - 5 carbons (C 5 H 10 O 5 ) Dehydration Synthesis example hexoses - 6 carbons (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) 6
7 Biol 219 Review Sessiono 1 Fall 2016 Lipids Mostly non-polar molecules, rich in C-H bonds Lipids Fatty acids - building blocks (monomers) of most lipids - long carbon chains with H atoms attached ( hydrocarbon tail ) - one end has a carboxyl group (-COOH) Hydrocarbon tail Mostly insoluble in H 2O Functions: cell membrane (phospholipids, cholesterol) carboxyl group energy reserves (triglycerides ~2x as much as carbs per gram) signaling molecules (steroid hormones and eicosanoids) Lipids Lipids Triglycerides Most lipids are hydrophobic, which means they are insoluble in aqueous solutions but soluble in organic solvents. Most lipids are made from two kinds of molecules: glycerol and fatty acids joined by dehydration synthesis. Main function: Energy storage in adipose tissue, liver and muscle cells Also padding and protection for some organs 7
8 Lipids Phospholipids e.g. phosopholipid bilayer cell membrane hydrophilic heads face water H 2 O inside cell & H 2 O outside cell hydrophobic tails face each other e.g. micelles droplets formed in H 2 O hydrophilic heads face water Lipids Steroids 4 hydrocarbon rings Types: Cholesterol - component of cell membranes; - precursor to other steroids Steroid hormones - e.g., estrogen and testosterone (sex hormones) - other steroid hormones are important in metabolism and mineral balance e.g., cortisol, aldosterone ICF ECF Hydrophobic Lipids Eicosanoids - modified fatty ac ids with a 5 C ring, - many function as paracrine substances ( local hormones ) - direct local cellular activity (vs. true hormones which are released into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body) Types: prostaglandins prostacyclins thromboxanes Proteins Amino Acids building blocks of protein central carbon atom hydrogen atom amino group (-NH 2 ) carboxyl group (-COOH) variable R group can be polar, non-polar, acidic (-) or basic (+) 32 8
9 Peptides combination of two or more amino acids Peptide bond links adjacent aa s (carboxyl group & amino group) Fig. 2.3 Due to hydrogen bonding α-helix β-pleated sheet β-turns Fig. 2.3 Fig
10 Nucleic Acids Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) forms the genetic code inside each cell and regulates most of the activities that take place in our cells throughout a lifetime. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) relays instructions from the genes in the cell s nucleus to guide each cell s assembly of amino acids into proteins by the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. Fig. 2.3 Purines double ring Adenine (A) Guanine (G) The Nitrogenous Bases Pyrimidines single ring Cytosine (C) Thymine (T) DNA only Uracil (U) RNA only (1) Sugar: DNA = deoxyribose RNA = ribose DNA vs. RNA (2) Nitrogenous bases: DNA = A G C T RNA = A G C U (3) Strands: DNA = double stranded RNA = mostly single stranded
11 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) a high-energy nucleotide Major Parts of the Cell 1. Plasma Membrane 2. Nucleus 3. Cytoplasm ATP is the energy currency molecule of the cell Phosphorylation - addition a high-energy phosphate group to ADP to form ATP Membrane Proteins The plasma membrane: - acts as a boundary between the ICF and ECF - has selective permeability - transports molecules into and out of the cell - enables communication with neighboring cells and the extracellular environment - provides structural support for cells and tissues. Functions: 1. Transport proteins channels carriers pumps 2. Receptors 3. Enzymes 4. Structural proteins 11
12 Membrane Proteins Membrane Proteins: pumps and channels Functions: 1. Transport proteins channels carriers pumps 2. Receptors 3. Enzymes 4. Structural proteins Membrane Proteins: receptors and enzymes 12
13 3. Tissues What is a tissue? Tissue types Epithelial Connective Muscle Nervous Cell Junctions Functional Types of Epithelia Exchange epithelia Transporting epithelia Ciliated epithelia Protective epithelia Secretory (glandular) epithelia Structural Subtype(s) Simple squamous ET Simple cuboidal, simple columnar ET Pseudostratified ciliated columnar, simple ciliated columnar ET Stratified squamous ET (keratinized and non-ketratinized) Glandular epithelium 13
14 Soluble Proteins Important Roles in Cell Function Enzymes - biological catalysts Membrane transporters channels or carriers Signal molecules - hormones Receptors bind signal molecules to initiate a response Soluble Proteins Important Roles in Cell Function Binding proteins bind and transport molecules throughout the body Immunoglobulins antibodies Regulatory proteins turn cell processes on and off Soluble Proteins Bind to other molecules through noncovalent interactions Ligand molecule or ion that binds to another molecule Substrate Ligand that binds to an enzyme or membrane transporter Specificity Molecular complementarity (induced fit) 14
15 Enzymes Lower the Activation Energy of Reactions From DNA to RNA to Protein Gene Constitutive proteins (essential to ongoing cell functions) are made at all times Regulated genes are turned on and off as needed (by regulatory proteins) Trans cription Synthesis of mrna by copying information in DNA Trans lation Synthesis of protein off the information in mrna 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 15
16 BioFlix: Protein Synthesis 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. Fig Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Glucose Oxidation: The Central Metabolic Pathway glucose + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy ATP heat Glycolysis (summary) 1. Glycolysis 2. Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle Start: one molecule of glucose Net yield: 2 pyruvate molecules 2 ATP 2 NADH 3. Electron Transport Chain 16
17 Pyruvate Metabolism (summary) For one molecule of glucose: Start: 2 pyruvates Net yield: 2 Acetyl CoA 2 CO 2 2 NADH Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Fig Acetyl CoA (2C) combines with oxaloacetate (4C) to form citrate (6C) Citrate is oxidized in a series of steps back to oxaloacetate High-energy electrons are captured in reduced coenzymes: 3 NADH + 1 FADH2 2 CO2 are produced Citric Acid Cycle Highlights 1 ATP is formed directly NADH and FADH2 carry high-energy electrons to the Electron Transport Chain where most ATP is produced. Fig Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. 17
18 Citric Acid Cycle (summary) For one molecule of glucose: Start: 2 Acetyl CoA Net yield: 2 ATP 6 NADH 2 FADH 2 4 CO 2 Fig Electron Transport Chain (summary) The ETC ATP 1 NADH 2.5 ATP 1 FADH ATP So, how many ATP can be produce from a single molecule of glucose? Fig. 4.15b Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. 18
19 Can lipids be used to make ATP? Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Fig. 4.15a β - oxidation Occurs in matrix of mitochondria Enzymes remove 2-C acyl groups from fa Each acyl group is then attached to CoA to form acetyl CoA which then enters the Krebs cycle Can proteins be used to make ATP? Fig
20 Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Fig a Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Know the difference between Glycolysis Glycogenesis Glycogenolysis Gluconeogenesis 20
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