Groups in Organizations. Overview of topics

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Clarence Townsend
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1 Groups in Organizations Overview of topics 1

2 Plan of today s lecture Groups general aspects Links with individual behavior Cohesion & conformity Decision making in groups 2

3 Characteristics of Groups Groups influence behaviour, beliefs, attitudes of their members! Group = mini-society! Hierarchy, rules Roles, norms, values Goals Change, development, adaptation Difficulties, decline 3

4 Importance of Groups Everybody belongs to groups Much organizational work is performed in teams (groups) Team/group working is often beneficial Team/group working is challenging 4

5 There were four team members named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and Nobody. There was an important job to do and Everybody was asked to do it. Eveybody was sure Somebody would do it. Anybody could have done it, but Nobody did. Everybody was angry about that, because it was Somebody s job. Everybody thought Anybody could do it, but Nobody realized that Everybody wouldn't. In the end, Everybody blamed Somebody when Nobody did what Anybody could have done.

6 Definition & Classification of Groups Psychological group: Two or more people Interacting Sharing common goals Having a stable, interdependent relationship Perceiving themselves as members of a group. Aggregate: Collection of unrelated people, Happening to be in close physical proximity For a short time. 6

7 Definition & Classification of Groups in Organizations Formal group: Consciously created To accomplish a defined part of an organization s purpose. Has tasks assigned to it, for which it is officially responsible. Informal group: Collection of individuals Becoming a group when Members develop interdependencies, Influence one another s behaviour Contribute to mutual need satisfaction. 7

8 Why Do People Join Groups? Groups satisfy psychological/social needs Attention Sense of belonging Groups help to achieve goals Groups provide information Groups satisfy need for security Group membership contributes to social identity 8

9 Stages of Group Development An informal group is always a psychological group, but a formal group not necessarily! Question: How does a collection of individuals become a psychological group? Tuckman & Jensen: Groups pass through five stages of development: Forming -> orientation stage Storming -> conflict stage Norming -> cohesion stage Performing -> effective team! Adjourning -> group disbands 9

10 McGraw-Hill Tuckman s Five-stage Theory of Group Development 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Norming Performing Adjourning Forming Storming Dependence/ interdependence Return to Independence Independence

11 Groups in Organizations The Hawthorne studies (Mayo, Roethlisberger, Dickson) Importance of informal groups Work groups are sources of individual s needs satisfaction Group forces influence behaviour of individuals, work groups & performance of the organization 11

12 Group Structure Definition: Relatively stable pattern of relationships between different group members. (H & B) Kinds of structure Power structure Status structure Liking structure Communication structure Role structure Leadership structure Closely interrelated! 12

13 Group Process Examples Direction of communication Quantity of communication Content of communication Decision-making style Problem-solving style Influences group structure Is influenced by group structure 13

14 Example for sociometric assessment On the next slide you see four boxes. In the box marked with work with yes write the name of two people in your course that you prefer to work with. In the box marked with work with no write the name of two people in your class that you prefer not to work with. Repeat the same with the remaining boxes. 14

15 Work with Yes No Study with Yes No 15

17 The Individual & the Group Membership in groups has positive & negative effects for the individual it influences: Self-esteem & self-definition: Social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1986) -> personality Perceptions: Social representations theory (Moscovici, 1984) -> perception Performance: Social falicitation & social loafing -> motivation General behavior: Group norms, sanctions, cohesion Attitudes: Conformity (e.g., Asch s study) -> decisionmaking Can lead to deindividuation & groupthink -> decisionmaking 17

18 Group Influences on Performance Kinds of group tasks Additive task Accomplishment depends on the sum of all member s efforts Conjunctive task Accomplishment depends on performance of least talented member Disjunctive task Accomplishment depends on performance of most talented member 18

19 Group Influences on Performance II Social influence Two possibilities: Others work with us Others are simply present Social facilitation in presence of others Sometimes also worse performance! Distraction-conflict theory as possible explanation Social loafing 19

20 Enhanced performance on simple tasks Presence of others Individual efforts can be evaluated Individual efforts cannot be evaluated Alertness Evaluation apprehension Distraction- Conflict No evaluation apprehension Arousal Relaxation Imparied performance on complex tasks Impaired performance on simple tasks Enhanced performance on complex tasks

21 Experimental evidence Charness et al., 2003: Social facilitation in strategic environments? Interested bystanders! Battle of the Sexes game With audience present, hosts choose aggressive strategy more frequently, guests choose accomodating strategy more frequently R o w Column A B A 3/1 0/0 B 0/0 1/3 21

22 Group Influence on General Behavior Group norms - behavioral expectations Serve to define nature of the group Represent values of group members Guidelines to help the group achieve its goals Increase predictability of member s behavior Reduce interpersonal problems Types of norms Pivotal norms Peripheral norms 22

23 Group Influence on Behavior Cont. Development of group norms Explicit statements Initial patterns of behavior & critical events in the history Transfer behaviors from past situations Learned through group socialization Enforcement of norms depends on Punishments & rewards Member s desire to avoid negative sanctions Degree to which members value their group membership Group cohesion 23

24 Group Cohesion Contributors Small size External threat Stable membership Past success of group Difficulty of entry Sharing of common goals Opportunity for interaction Agreement about statuses Attractiveness of group Group success Consequences Member satisfaction Productivity high or low Greater conformity by members Member s evaluations distorted Cooperative behavior Increased interaction Increased group influence ov. members

25 Group Influences on Attitudes Conformity to group pressure External reasons Internal reasons Asch s study Distortion of perception Distortion of judgement Distortion of action 25

27 Obedience Milgram s electric shock experiments Zimbardo s simulated prison 27

28 28

29 Factors Affecting Conformity Cohesiveness Type of social norms Desire to be liked & right 29

30 Deindividuation Arousal + diffused responsibility = deindividuation Loss of self-awareness & self-monitoring Some lack/loss of personal identity Greater identification with the group Leads to impulse behavior, heightened emotions, failure of self-control, less rational behavior Influenced by group size & anonymity 30

31 Advantages & Disadvantages of Group Decision-making Advantages Greater pool of knowledge Different perspectives Increased acceptance Training ground Disadvantages Time consuming Diffusion of responsibility Log rolling Goal displacement Groupthink Risky Shift/Polarization Many techniques developed to avoid disadvantages Brainstorming Nominal group technique... 31

32 Are groups more rational and more selfish than individuals? Experimental evidence Bornstein Ultimatum game Played by individuals vs. three-person groups Groups offered less than individuals Groups were willing to accept less Groups tend to be more rational than individuals Luhan et al. (2007) Experiments have shown that teams behave More selfishly More in line with game theoretic predictions More motivated by payoff maximization Luhan et al.: 3-person teams; dictator game teams more selfish; most selfish team-member has strongest influence the lower transfer of this member, the lower teamtransfer Arguments linked to payoff maximization or rational decision making, or even (un)fairness! 32

33 Groupthink Definition: A cohesive in-group s unwillingness to realistically view alternatives Symptoms: McGraw-Hill Invulnerability Inherent morality Rationalization Stereotyped views of opposition Self-censorship Illusion of unanimity Peer pressure Mind guards The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

34 Individual Influences on Group Attitudes & Behavior Minority influence: conversion ( compliance) Important factors minority has to......become viable...create tension...be consistent...be persistent...be unyielding...be self-confident...seek defectors 34

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