Figure 11.1 Social facilitation/inhibition on simple versus difficult tasks (according to Zajonc, 1965, 1980).
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1 Presence of others Arousal Facilitation of dominant responses Improved performance on routine/ simple tasks Inhibition of non dominant responses Impaired performance on novel/ complex tasks Figure 11.1 Social facilitation/inhibition on simple versus difficult tasks (according to Zajonc, 1965, 198).
2 Alone Another person present Accuracy of performance Positive expectations about success Negative expectations about success Figure 11.2 Social facilitation as a function of task expectations and the presence of others (data from Robinson-Staveley & Cooper, 199).
3 8 Individual-to-group 8 Group-to-individual Inches I II III IV Session I II III IV Session Figure 11.3 Median judgements of movement under alone (I) or group (II, III, IV) conditions (left), and under group (I, II, III) or alone (IV) conditions (right) in Sherif s (1935) study on norm formation. In each case, judgements by three participants are shown.
4 Mean estimates in inches Control (1) 1 of 2 (2) 2 of 3 (3) 3 of 4 (4) 1 of 3 (5) Conditions (proportion of confederates to naïve members) Figure 11.4 Mean estimates of autokinetic effect as a function of proportion of confederates to naïve group members (data from Jacobs & Campbell, 1961).
5 Mean estimates in inches Control 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Conditions/Generations Figure 11.5 Mean estimates of autokinetic effect as a function of number of generations since last confederate left the group (data from Jacobs & Campbell, 1961).
6 Percentage errors Group size Figure 11.6 Percentage of errors as a function of majority size (based on Asch, 1951).
7 1.9.8 Conformity scores No social support Invalid social support Valid social support Figure 11.7 Conformity in the absence and in the presence of types of social support (based on Allen & Levine, 1971).
8 9 8 Percentage green responses Control Inconsistent minority Consistent minority Figure 11.8 Percentage of green responses given by majority participants in the experiment by Moscovici et al. (1969).
9 5 Majority Minority Attitude score Pre-test Post-test I: Initial message Post-test II: Countermessage Figure 11.9 Mean attitudes as a function of majority vs. minority source and pre-test, post-test I (initial message) and post-test II (countermessage) (data from Martin et al., 23). Note: greater agreement with the source is reflected by high scores on the initial message and low scores on the countermessage. The difference between initial message and countermessage reflects the degree of resistance the smaller the difference, the greater the resistance.
10 Mean attitude scores PRE-CS CS POST-CS De Gaulle PRE-CS CS POST-CS Americans Figure 11.1 Group polarization: attitudes towards de Gaulle and towards Americans in pre-consensus, consensus and postconsensus conditions (data from Moscovici & Zavalloni, 1969).
11 Antecedent conditions (causes) l High cohesiveness l Insulation of the group from qualified others l Lack of agreed procedures for debate l Directive leadership l Pressure to reach a solution Premature concurrenceseeking tendency l Striving for unanimity overrides motivation to appraise alternatives realistically Symptoms of groupthink l Overestimation of ingroup s might and right l Group members become closed-minded l Pressures towards uniformity Symptoms of defective decision-making Failure to: l seek best solution l undertake search of alternatives l evaluate alternatives Figure Schematic analysis of groupthink model (after Janis, 1982).
12 Decision characteristics Group structure Emergent group characteristics Decision process characteristics Outcomes Decision-making context Figure Simplified general problem-solving model (after Aldag & Fuller, 1993).
13 Percentage participants giving maximal volts Pounding Hearing Seeing Holding Figure Obedience as a function of physical proximity (data from Milgram, 1974).
14 1 Percentage maximally obedient participants Disobeying peers present No peer present Obeying peer present Figure Obedience as a function of peer behaviour (data from Milgram, 1974).
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