Big Questions. 1. How do nervous systems help animals coordinate and control their physiology? 2. Why are nervous systems an animals only phenomenon?

Transcription

1 Nervous Systems

2 Big Questions 1. How do nervous systems help animals coordinate and control their physiology? 2. Why are nervous systems an animals only phenomenon?

3 Why do animals need a nervous system? What characteristics do animals need in a nervous system? fast accurate reset quickly Remember think Poor bunny! about the bunny

4 Overview of information processing by nervous systems Sensory input Sensor Integration Motor output Effector Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Central nervous system (CNS)

5 signal direction Neuron a nerve cell Nervous system cells dendrites cell body Structure fits function many entry points for signal one path out transmits signal axon signal direction myelin sheath dendrite cell body axon synaptic terminal synapse

6 Fun facts about neurons Most specialized cell in animals Longest cell blue whale neuron meters giraffe axon 5 meters human neuron 1-2 meters Nervous system allows for 1 millisecond response time

7 Transmission of a signal Think dominoes! start the signal knock down line of dominoes by tipping 1 st one trigger the signal propagate the signal do dominoes move down the line? no, just a wave through them! re-set the system before you can do it again, have to set up dominoes again reset the axon

8 Transmission of a nerve signal Neuron has similar system protein channels are set up once first one is opened, the rest open in succession all or nothing response a wave action travels along neuron have to re-set channels so neuron can react again

9 Cells: surrounded by charged ions Cells live in a sea of charged ions anions (negative) more concentrated within the cell Cl -, charged amino acids (aa - ) cations (positive) more concentrated in the extracellular fluid Na channel K leaks K Na Na Na Na Na Na K Na Na Na Na Na K aa - Cl - Cl - Cl - Cl - K aa - aa - aa - K K aa - Cl - aa - Cl -

10 Cells have voltage! Opposite charges on opposite sides of cell membrane membrane is polarized negative inside; positive outside charge gradient stored energy (like a battery)

11 Measuring cell voltage unstimulated neuron = resting potential of -70mV

12 How does a nerve impulse travel? Stimulus: nerve is stimulated reaches threshold potential The 1st domino goes down! open Na channels in cell membrane Na ions diffuse into cell charges reverse at that point on neuron positive inside; negative outside cell becomes depolarized Na

13 How does a nerve impulse travel? Wave: nerve impulse travels down neuron change in charge opens next Na gates down the line voltage-gated channels Na ions continue to diffuse into cell wave moves down neuron = action potential Gate channel closed channel open The rest of the dominoes fall! Na wave

14 How does a nerve impulse travel? Re-set: 2nd wave travels down neuron K channels open K channels open up more slowly than Na channels K ions diffuse out of cell charges reverse back at that point Set dominoes back up quickly! negative inside; positive outside K Na wave

15 How does a nerve impulse travel? Combined waves travel down neuron wave of opening ion channels moves down neuron signal moves in one direction flow of K out of cell stops activation of Na channels in wrong direction Ready for next time! Na wave K

16 How does a nerve impulse travel? Action potential propagates wave = nerve impulse, or action potential brain finger tips in milliseconds! In the blink of an eye! K Na wave

17 Voltage-gated channels Ion channels open & close in response to changes in charge across membrane Na channels open quickly in response to depolarization & close slowly K channels open slowly in response to depolarization & close slowly Structure & function! Na wave K

18 How does the nerve re-set itself? After firing a neuron has to re-set itself Na needs to move back out K needs to move back in both are moving against concentration gradients need a pump!! A lot of work to do here! K Na K Na K Na Na K Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na K K K K K K Na Na K wave K K

19 How does the nerve re-set itself? Sodium-Potassium pump active transport protein in membrane requires ATP 3 Na pumped out 2 K pumped in re-sets charge across membrane ATP That s a lot of ATP! Feed me some sugar quick!

20 Neuron is ready to fire again Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na K aa - K K K K K aa - aa - aa - K aa - K aa - K Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na resting potential

21 Membrane potential Action potential graph 1. Resting potential 2. Stimulus reaches threshold potential 3. Depolarization Na channels open; K channels closed 4. Na channels close; K channels open 5. Repolarization reset charge gradient 6. Undershoot K channels close slowly 40 mv 30 mv 20 mv 10 mv Depolarization Na flows in 0 mv 10 mv 20 mv 30 mv 40 mv 50 mv 60 mv 70 mv 80 mv Threshold Resting potential Repolarization K flows out 5 Hyperpolarization (undershoot) 6 Resting

22 Myelin sheath signal direction Axon coated with Schwann cells insulates axon speeds signal signal hops from node to node saltatory conduction 150 m/sec vs. 5 m/sec (330 mph vs. 11 mph) myelin sheath

23 action potential Na saltatory conduction myelin axon Na Multiple Sclerosis immune system (T cells) attack myelin sheath loss of signal

24 What happens at the end of the axon? Synapse Impulse has to jump the synapse! junction between neurons has to jump quickly from one cell to next How does the wave jump the gap?

25 Chemical synapse Ca receptor protein axon terminal action potential synaptic vesicles synapse neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) muscle cell (fiber) We switched from an electrical signal to a chemical signal Events at synapse action potential depolarizes membrane opens Ca channels neurotransmitter vesicles fuse with membrane release neurotransmitter to synapse diffusion neurotransmitter binds with protein receptor ion-gated channels open neurotransmitter degraded or reabsorbed

26 5 µm Synaptic terminals on the cell body of a postsynaptic neuron (colorized SEM) Postsynaptic neuron Synaptic terminal of presynaptic neurons

27 Nerve impulse in next neuron Post-synaptic neuron Here we go again! triggers nerve impulse in next nerve cell chemical signal opens ion-gated channels Na diffuses into cell K diffuses out of cell switch back to voltage-gated channel Na binding site ion channel K Na Na ACh K K Na

28 Membrane potential (mv) Summation of postsynaptic potentials Terminal branch of presynaptic neuron Postsynaptic neuron E 1 E 1 E 1 E 2 E 1 Axon hillock I 0 Threshold of axon of postsynaptic neuron Resting potential Action potential Action potential 70 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 2 E 1 I E 1 I (a) Subthreshold, no summation (b) Temporal summation (c) Spatial summation (d) Spatial summation of EPSP and IPSP

29 Organization of some nervous systems Nerve net Radial nerve Nerve ring Eyespot Brain Nerve cord Transverse nerve Segmental ganglion Brain Ventral nerve cord (a) Hydra (cnidarian) (b) Sea star (echinoderm) (c) Planarian (flatworm) (d) Leech (annelid) Brain Ventral nerve cord Segmental ganglia Anterior nerve ring Longitudinal nerve cords Ganglia Brain Ganglia Brain Spinal cord (dorsal nerve cord) Sensory ganglion (e) Insect (arthropod) (f) Chiton (mollusc) (g) Squid (mollusc) (h) Salamander (chordate)

30 The vertebrate nervous system Central nervous system (CNS) Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Cranial nerves Ganglia outside CNS Spinal nerves

31 Functional hierarchy of the vertebrate peripheral nervous system Peripheral nervous system Somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous system Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division Enteric division

32 The parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system Location of preganglionic neurons: brainstem and sacral segments of spinal cord Neurotransmitter released by preganglionic neurons: acetylcholine Parasympathetic division Action on target organs: Constricts pupil of eye Stimulates salivary gland secretion Constricts bronchi in lungs Slows heart Cervical Sympathetic ganglia Action on target organs: Dilates pupil of eye Inhibits salivary gland secretion Relaxes bronchi in lungs Accelerates heart Sympathetic division Location of preganglionic neurons: thoracic and lumbar segments of spinal cord Neurotransmitter released by preganglionic neurons: acetylcholine Location of postganglionic neurons: in ganglia close to or within target organs Neurotransmitter released by postganglionic neurons: acetylcholine Stimulates activity of stomach and intestines Stimulates activity of pancreas Stimulates gallbladder Promotes emptying of bladder Thoracic Lumbar Inhibits activity of stomach and intestines Inhibits activity of pancreas Stimulates glucose release from liver; inhibits gallbladder Stimulates adrenal medulla Inhibits emptying of bladder Location of postganglionic neurons: some in ganglia close to target organs; others in a chain of ganglia near spinal cord Neurotransmitter released by postganglionic neurons: norepinephrine Promotes erection of genitalia Synapse Sacral Promotes ejaculation and vaginal contractions

33 Development of the human brain Embryonic brain regions Brain structures present in adult Forebrain Telencephalon Diencephalon Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres; includes cerebral cortex, white matter, basal nuclei) Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus) Midbrain Mesencephalon Midbrain (part of brainstem) Metencephalon Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum Hindbrain Myelencephalon Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem) Diencephalon: Midbrain Hindbrain Diencephalon Mesencephalon Metencephalon Myelencephalon Cerebral hemisphere Hypothalamus Thalamus Pineal gland (part of epithalamus) Brainstem: Midbrain Forebrain Telencephalon Spinal cord Pituitary gland Spinal cord Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata (a) Embryo at one month (b) Embryo at five weeks (c) Adult Central canal

34 The human cerebral cortex Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Frontal association area Speech Smell Hearing Auditory association area Speech Taste Somatosensory association area Reading Visual association area Vision Temporal lobe Occipital lobe

35 Mapping language areas in the cerebral cortex Max Hearing words Seeing words Min Speaking words Generating words

36 Microscopic signs of Alzheimer s disease Senile plaque Neurofibrillary tangle 20 m

37 Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine transmit signal to skeletal muscle Epinephrine (adrenaline) & norepinephrine fight-or-flight response Dopamine widespread in brain affects sleep, mood, attention & learning lack of dopamine in brain associated with Parkinson s disease excessive dopamine linked to schizophrenia Serotonin widespread in brain affects sleep, mood, attention & learning

38 Neurotransmitters Weak point of nervous system any substance that affects neurotransmitters or mimics them affects nerve function gases: nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide mood altering drugs: stimulants» amphetamines, caffeine, nicotine depressants» quaaludes, barbiturates hallucinogenic drugs: LSD, peyote SSRIs: Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil poisons

39 Acetylcholinesterase Enzyme which breaks down acetylcholine neurotransmitter acetylcholinesterase inhibitors = neurotoxins snake venom, sarin, insecticides active site in red acetylcholinesterase neurotoxin in green snake toxin blocking acetylcholinesterase active site

40 Neurotoxins Many Animal toxins disrupt the functioning of nervous system cell signaling pathways. Many drugs have a similar mode of action (just not deadly). This disruption has many effects in the body.

41 Questions to ponder Why are axons so long? Why have synapses at all? How do mind altering drugs work? caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, marijuana Do plants have a nervous system? Do they need one?