Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. For any specific research project to occupy a place in the

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1 Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE For any specific research project to occupy a place in the development of a discipline, the researcher must be thoroughly familiar with both previous theories and researches. To assure this familiarity, every research project in the behavioural sciences has, as one of its early stage, a review of the theoretical and research literature. The literature related to any problem helps the scholar to discover what is already known, which would enable the investigator to have a deep insight, clear perspective and a better understanding of the chosen problem and various factors connected with the study. So a number of books, journals and websites were referred. In the following pages, an attempt has been made to present briefly a few of the important researches and studies conducted abroad and in India, as they have significant bearing on the present study. The literature in any field forms the foundation upon which all future work will be built. If it is failed to build upon the foundation of knowledge provided by the review of literature, the researcher might miss some work already done on the same topic. The reviews of the literature have been classified under the following headings.

2 31 1. Studies on Bio-motor variables. 2. Studies on Physiological variables. 3. Studies on Psychological variables. 4. General Studies related to the selected variables 5. Summary of the literatures 1. Studies on Bio-motor Variables Morrow et al., (1980) conducted a comparative study on women inter collegiate basketball players volley ball players and non-athletes. They took 330 women college students as the subject for this study. The subjects were 110 women from each of the above listed groups. Various anthropometric and performance characteristics were obtained on each subject s fat, weight, lean weight, height, sitting height, arm length,10 yards sprint time, upper and lower body isokinetic strength were measured. Athletes were found to differ significantly from non-athletes on all variables. It was indicated that basket ball players had lower sprint time and greater upper and lower body strength than volley ball players. Fleck et al., (1985) compared various physical and performance characteristics of two elite groups of athletes, the 1980 U.S. Women's National Volleyball Team and the collegiate players who composed the 1979 U.S. Women's University Games Volleyball Team. The

3 32 characteristics compared were age, height, weight, body composition determined via hydrostatic weighing, vertical jumping distance, vertical jumping height, maximal oxygen consumption, heart rate max and respiratory exchange ratio. Significant differences (p less than 0.05) in age (23 +/- 2.6 yr. and /- 0.7 yr.), percent of body fat (11.7 +/- 3.7% and /- 3.4%), and vertical jumping distance (52.4 +/- 4.5 cm and /- 6.4 cm), between the two teams were demonstrated, with the National Team being significantly older, having a lower percentage of body fat and possessing a larger vertical jumping distance. These results indicated that the trainers of elite (national and international caliber) women volleyball players should consider including techniques to reduce percentage of body fat and increase vertical jumping distance. Grant (2001) compared these characteristics in three groups of females: Group 1 comprised 10 elite climbers aged /- 5.0 years (mean +/- s) who had led to a standard of 'hard very severe'; Group 2 consisted of 10 recreational climbers aged /- 4.0 years who had led to a standard of 'severe'; and Group 3 comprised 10 physically active individuals aged /- 5.0 years who had not previously rock-climbed. The tests included finger strength (grip strength, finger strength measured on climbing-specific apparatus), flexibility, bent arm hang and pull-ups. Regression procedures (analysis of covariance) were used to examine the influence of body mass, leg length, height and age. For finger strength, the elite climbers recorded significantly higher values

4 33 (P < 0.05) than the recreational climbers and non-climbers (four fingers, right hand: elite 321 +/- 18 N, recreational 251 +/- 14 N, non-climbers 256 +/- 15 N; four fingers, left hand: elite 307 +/- 14 N, recreational 248 +/- 12 N, non-climbers 243 +/- 11 N). For grip strength of the right hand, the elite climbers recorded significantly higher values than the recreational climbers only (elite 338 +/- 12 N, recreational 289 +/- 10 N, non-climbers 307 +/- 11 N). The results suggested that elite climbers have greater finger strength than recreational climbers and non-climbers. Tsunawake (2003) evaluated the body composition (underwater weighing) and cardio respiratory function (VO (2) max and O (2) debt max measured by the treadmill exercise test) in 12 members of the women's volleyball team (mean age 17.4 years) and 11 members of the women's basketball team (mean age 17.6 years) that won the championship in the Japan Inter-high School Meeting. The investigator also examined differences in the physical abilities between the members of the top teams of different events. The following results were obtained. (1) The mean values of the height and body weight were /-5.89 cm and 59.7+/-5.73 kg in the volleyball players and /-7.87 cm and 58.8+/-6.85 kg in the basketball players. (2) The mean %Fat was 18.4+/- 3.29% in the volleyball players and 15.7+/-5.05% in the basketball players, and was similar to the reported values in elite adult players. (3) The mean VO (2) max was 2.78+/-0.32 L x min(-1) (46.5+/-2.90 ml x kg(-1) x min (-1) in the volleyball players and 3.32+/-0.31 L x min(-1)

5 34 (56.7+/-4.17 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)) in the basketball players, and was similar to the reported values in elite adult players. (4) The mean O (2) debt max was 6.18+/-1.15 L (103.2+/ ml x kg(-1)) in the volleyball players and 7.92+/-1.80 L (134.3+/ ml x kg(-1)) in the basketball players. These values were 2.6 times and 3.3 times as high as the average values in high school students in general. (5) No significant difference was observed in any measured item of the physique, skin fold thickness, or body composition between the volleyball players and basketball players. (6) The VO (2) max and O (2) debt max was 22% and 28% higher in the basketball players than in the volleyball players. From these results, the female volleyball players and basketball players evaluated in this study had the physical abilities needed to win the championship in the Japan Inter-high School Meets, i.e. a large FFM and excellent aerobic and anaerobic work capacities. Also, basketball appears to require higher aerobic and anaerobic work capacities than volleyball. Kollias et al., (2004) compared DJP among athletes from various sports. One hundred thirty-eight male athletes (age: /- 3.6 years, body height: / m, body mass: / kg) from 6 different sports performed drop jumps from 60 cm (DJ60) on a force plate. Results revealed that volleyball players jumped higher (p < 0.001) than other athletes. However, track and field athletes produced higher peak force and higher power output using a shorter upward phase (p < 0.001). Further examination using principal components analysis

6 35 (PCA) revealed that team sport athletes and single scull rowers exhibited DJP utilizing force and time parameters differently than track and field athletes. Conclusively, DJP was different among athletes of various sports. Furthermore, PCA can be a useful method for evaluating the above mentioned differences and for monitoring drop jumping training programs. Narayanan (2001) the findings of the study indicate that basketball players have better cardio-vascular endurance than volleyball players. Being basketball is strenuous game it needs endurance. Basketball players have to run all along the court. Basketball players showed better speed than volleyball players. Basketball is the fast game. Then they are having better agility also but the explosive power is same for basketball and volleyball players. Both games needs these two (agility and explosive power) motor components as there play a predominant role in the execution of skills. Joseph (1983) determined the relationship of power, agility shoulder flexibility, arm length and leg length to volleyball playing ability. Thirty male volleyball players of Lakshmibai National College of Physical Education (LNCPE), Gwalior, were selected as subjects. Power was measured by sergeant jump, agility by 40 mts. shuttle run, shoulder flexibility by graded stick and arm length and leg length by steel tape, and the playing ability was based on experts and product moment

7 36 correlation was used statistically to analyse the data and was concluded that, 1. Power is the most reliable single variable to predict playing ability of men volleyball players. 2. Arm length and leg length are also reliable variable in prediction of playing ability of male volleyball players and, 3. The variables of agility and shoulders flexibility show insignificant relationship in prediction of playing ability of male volleyball players. Sridhar (1984) studied to determine the relationship of power agility, flexibility, muscular endurance and circulo-respiratory endurance to playing ability in volleyball. Thirty volleyball players of the Lakshmibai National College of Physical Education (LNCPE), Gwalior, acted as subjects. Power was measured by sergeant jump and agility by side step test; flexibility by trunk flexion test, muscular endurance by pull ups and bent knee sit ups and circulo respiratory endurance by one minute lateral jump test. The playing ability was the subjective judgment of a panel of three experts for each subject. Product moment correlation was used to statistically analyse the data. On the basis of the finding of the study the following conclusions were drawn. 1. Power was the most significant motor fitness component underlying performance in the game of volleyball.

8 37 2. Muscular endurance, circulo-respiratory endurance and flexibility also contributed to the volleyball playing ability. 3. Agility showed an insignificant relationship to playing ability in volleyball. Antan (1993) compared physical fitness component such as speed strength and agility, physiological variables pulse rate, blood pressure and breathe holding time and psychological variables such as anxiety and aggression among Nicobar and Karaikal Boys. The subjects were thirty boys from Jawahar Vidyalaya Car Nicobar and thirty boys from Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Karaikal. Data were collected and was statistically analyzed using t ratio. It was concluded thus. 1. It was found that the physical fitness variables of the Nicobar boys were better than the Karaikal boys. 2. It was found that the psychological variables of the Nicobar boys were better than the Karaikal boys. Uppal (1982) in his study found that the efficiency of an individual in performing physical activities depends basically on circulo-respiratory changes and training results in development of the circulo-respiratory efficiency. As a result of his study, he came to the conclusion that by endurance training the efficiency of the circulating and respiratory

9 38 system is improved, maximal O 2 uptake is increased, stroke volume and cardiac input are increased, ventilators efficiency is improved lung volumes became longer and diffusion capacities were increased. Extraordinary physical fitness is something significant for football players. Fitness includes muscular as well as cardio-vascular factors. As Thomas Hally asserts one out come of a superior fitness level is that it allows the team as a whole to raise the phase if the game to outfit the opponent (Thomas, 1983). Meera (1984) conducted a study to compare the selected general motor ability components i.e. speed, agility, flexibility, muscular endurance, balance leg strength, arm and shoulder strength and coordination of women basketball and volleyball players. The subjects chosen were women basketball and volleyball players of Lakshmibai National College of Physical Education, Gwalior. Fifteen players in each game were selected and the components were tested on the players. The data collected in all the tests were statistically compared by using t ratio at.05 level of significance. The analysis showed that the women basketball players were comparatively superior to volleyball players in arm and shoulder strength. But there were no significant differences between the two groups in speed, agility, trunk flexion, abdominal endurance, balance, leg strength and hand-eye co-ordination. Pawar (1984) conducted a study to compare the motor ability of inter collegiate level wrestlers and basketball players. The motor ability

10 39 variables taken for the study were agility, speed, trunk flexibility, cardiovascular endurance, leg explosive strength and arm-shoulder strength and the tests were shuttle run, 50 meters run, Well s sit and reach test, Cooper s twelve minute run/ walk test, vertical jump test and pull-ups respectively. On the basis of the analysis of the data, the following conclusions were drawn. 1. The basketball players are superior to wrestlers in speed, agility and leg explosive strength. 2. Wrestlers are superior to basketball players in arm-shoulder strength. 3. Wrestlers and basketball players do no differ in cardiovascular endurance and trunk flexibility. Manimaran (2003) the results of the study reveals that the volleyball players have significantly higher strength and explosive power than the basketball players. The result also reveals that basketball players were significantly differed on speed agility and endurance than the volleyball players. Ramakrishnan (1990) attempted in his study to find out the cardiovascular efficiency of the Inter-collegiate soccer and hockey players. He concluded that the Inter- collegiate soccer players had a better cardiovascular efficiency than Inter-collegiate hockey players. Sleivert et al., (1995) tested Volleyball players, middle distance runners and non-athletes (n = 10/group) to determine whether

11 40 neuromuscular differences existed between groups and to clarify the roles of factors involved in maximal power production. The runners were leaner than controls, while the volleyball players were taller, heavier and had larger thigh volumes than the other groups. The volleyball players had higher absolute cycle ergometer power than both middle distances (26%) and control (15%) groups, but differences disappeared when expressed relative to body mass or thigh volume. Volleyball athletes were also stronger than both middle distance (51, 52%) and control subjects (33, 35%) for isokinetic leg extension and plantar flexion respectively ( rad.s-1). In leg press they were stronger than middle distance (32%) and control subjects (36%) for only the isometric and 1.05 rad.s-1 contraction. The volleyball players also had higher rates of isometric torque development than the other groups, however nerve conduction velocity did not vary. Vastus lateralis biopsy samples revealed no differences in percent Type II muscle fibers, or fiber cross-sectional area between groups, yet volleyball athletes had larger Type II/I fiber area ratio than controls (15%). Both strength, rate of torque development and power were related to muscle and muscle fiber size variables, but not fiber distribution or nerve conduction velocity. The size of type II muscle fibers seemed to be especially important since this was the only variable related to power when adjusted for body size. Umanath (2004) The results of the study showed that there was a significant differences exists between college men and women players on

12 41 selected bio-motor abilities such as speed, agility, explosive power in terms of horizontal distance and explosive power in terms of horizontal distance and explosive power in terms vertical distance. And there was no significant difference between college basketball and volleyball players on selected bio-motor abilities such as speed, agility, explosive power in terms of vertical distance. And it was also concluded that there was no significant difference between college men and women basketball and volleyball players. This may be due to the nature of the subjects and also nature of the game. Anandan (2003) The results of the study showed that there was no significant different exist between school and college men basketball and volleyball players, on selected criterion variables such as speed, agility, strength endurance, explosive power, breath holding time, resting heart rate, competition anxiety and achievement motivation. This may be due to the subjects. Rathi (2004) the results of physical fitness variables show that, volleyball players were significantly better than the basketball players on speed, explosive power and elastic power. But, explosive strength fails to obtain significant difference between volleyball players and basketball players. However volleyball players were better in explosive strength when compared with basketball players. In health related fitness variable. Volleyball players were significantly better than basketball players on strength endurance and

13 42 Vo 2 max. But on muscular endurance both the groups fails to obtain significant difference. However, volleyball players were better in muscular endurance when compared with basketball players. Tamilarasan (2005) the results of the study showed that there was a significant difference among university basketball and volleyball players on speed, agility and vital capacity. And also the results of the study showed that there was no significant difference among university basketball and volleyball players on cardio-respiratory endurance and resting pulse rate. This may be due to the nature of the game and the area needed for the games. Tilak Emmanuel Vijay Sing (2005) the results of the study shown that the basketball and volleyball players significant difference in explosive power. In the view of agility, arm strength, caloric expenditure, explosive power, grip strength and speed is concern there is some difference between the basketball and volleyball players. Senthil Kumar (2005) the results of the study clearly show that the basketball players are better than the volleyball players in respect of agility and resting pulse rate, and the volleyball players are better than the basketball players in respect of anaerobic capacity. Saravanan (2005) The results of the present study indicate that there was significant differences that exist between women volleyball and basketball players on explosive power, the mean values of women

14 43 volleyball and basketball players on explosive power were and respectively and the obtained F ratio value was There were significant differences that exist between women volleyball and basketball players on speed. The mean values of women volleyball and basketball players on speed were 7.97 and 7.70 respectively and the obtained F ratio value was There were significant differences that exist between women volleyball and basketball players on agility, the mean values of women volleyball and basketball players on agility were 9.96 and 9.85 respectively and the obtained f ratio value was There were no significant differences that exist between women volleyball and basketball players pm strength endurance were 33.9 and 35.1 respectively and the obtained F ratio value was Studies on Physiological Variables Giam (1982) proposed to assess and compare the max VO 2 of 15 top class competitive male athletes, 13 badminton, 17 hockey, 28 soccer and 7 squash players in Singapore. Most of these sportsmen were on the respective national teams when they were studied. Their max V O2 was determined in a human performance laboratory from direct analyses of their expired respiratory gases with an automated and calibrated Beckman Metabolic Measurement Cart during an all-out run on a Quinton research treadmill. The following table indicates whether the differences of group mean values for max V O 2 are statistically

15 44 significant (p 0.05) or not significant (NS, when p 0.05) for the different groups of sportsmen studied when compared with each other. Maud (1983) described the anthropometric and physiological parameters that apply to a USA amateur rugby union club team. Fifteen players who were members of the club's first team were evaluated for body composition, muscular strength, power and endurance, flexibility, anaerobic power, anaerobic capacity, and cardio-respiratory function shortly after completion of the regular season. Means for some of the variables measured include: age, 29 yr; height, 180 cm; weight, 84 kg; lean body weight, 74 kg; body fat, 12%, endurance sit-ups, 50/min; vertical jump height, 51 cm; anaerobic power output, 132 m.kg.s-1 (1.32 kw); anaerobic capacity, 2247 m.kp/40s (22.5 kj); maximum heart rate, 186 beats/min; maximum ventilation, 175 l/min-1; maximum respiratory quotient 1.23; and maximum oxygen uptake, 56.6 ml.kg-1 min-1. In comparison with other rugby players studied these players had higher maximum oxygen uptake values, were similar in endurance sit-up and vertical jump ability, exhibited less upper body strength, and the forwards had lower body fat percentages. They were generally within the range of scores found to describe the aerobic and anaerobic fitness, and body composition of other elite amateur and professional intermittent sport athletes. Meckel et al., (1995) compared physiological characteristics of three different levels of 100 mts. female sprinters. The 30 subjects in this

16 45 study (20 female track athletes and 10 recreationally trained females) were assigned, according to their 100 mts. running time, to one of three different groups: "Fast" (11.8 +/- 0.1 sec), "Average" (12.7 +/- 0.1) and "Slow" (14.2 +/- 0.1 sec). All subjects were tested for performance in the Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT), strength (squat exercise), fat % (hydrostatic weighing), reaction time, flexibility (sit-and-reach test), aerobic power (peak VO 2 ) and running skill. The ANOVA indicated significant differences among all three groups for performance in the Wingate Anaerobic Test and relative strength. Significant differences in fat % and running skill were found between the fast and the slow groups and between the average and slow groups. However, no significant difference in fat % and running skill existed between the fast and the average groups. The differences in reaction time were significant only between the fast and average groups. No two groups were significantly different from each other for flexibility and peak VO 2. Pearson correlation coefficients (r) were calculated to determine the relationships between the 100mts. running time and each of the variables tested. Significant and negative correlations were found between the 100mts. running time and skill, relative strength, and performance in the WAnT. Significant and positive correlations were found among running time and fat %. No significant correlations were found between running time and peak VO 2 reaction time and flexibility. Stepwise regression analysis indicated that the combination of performance in the WAnT and strength provided the

17 46 most efficient (R = 0.92) prediction of 100 mts. run times. This study demonstrated that the main difference among female sprinters of different performance levels lies in their ability to produce muscular power, strength and running technique. Other physiological components, such as flexibility, peak VO 2, and reaction time do not differ among female sprinters of different performance levels as represented in the tested groups. Hoare (2000) measured anthropometric and physiological attributes of 125 male and 123 female junior basketball players competing at the Australian under 16 championships in In addition, experienced coaches rated the performance of players during the championships. Performance profiles were compared across playing positions and by playing performance ('Best versus Rest'). Differences in anthropometric characteristics were present across some playing positions for both males and females. Speed and agility differences between some playing positions were also present. Best players differed to Rest players on a number of anthropometric and physiological variables for both males and females. Regression analyses indicated the test variables accounted for a significant proportion of variance in playing performance for both females (41.3%) and males (38.3%). A Z score analysis indicated good alignment between the test and coach ranking of the Best player in four out of five positions for females and two out of five positions for males. Anthropometric and physiological

18 47 profiling can contribute to selection procedures in junior basketball, however determinants of success are multi-factorial. Gabbett et al., (2005) compared the physiological and anthropometric characteristics of specific playing positions and positional playing groups in junior rugby league players. Two hundred and forty junior rugby league players underwent measurements of standard anthropometry (body mass, height, sum of four skinfolds), muscular power (vertical jump), speed (10, 20, and 40 mts. sprint), agility (L run), and estimated maximal aerobic power (multi-stage fitness test) during the competitive phase of the season, after players had obtained a degree of match fitness. Props were significantly (p<0.05) taller, heavier, and had greater skinfold thickness than all other positions. The halfback and centre positions were faster than props over 40 mts. Halfbacks had significantly (p<0.05) greater estimated maximal aerobic power than props. When data were analysed according to positional similarities, it was found that the props positional group had lower 20 and 40 mts. speed, agility, and estimated maximal aerobic power than the hookers and halves and outside backs positional groups. Differences in the physiological and anthropometric characteristics of other individual playing positions and positional playing groups were uncommon. The results of this study demonstrated that few physiological and anthropometric differences existed among individual playing positions in junior rugby league players, although props are

19 48 taller, heavier, have greater skinfold thickness, lower 20 and 40 mts. speed, agility, and estimated maximal aerobic power than other positional playing groups. These findings provided normative data and realistic performance standards for junior rugby league players competing in specific individual positions and positional playing groups. Gabbett et al., (2005) investigated the physiological and anthropometric characteristics of junior rugby league players over a competitive season. Forty-five rugby league players were allocated into training (n = 36) and non exercise control (n = 9) groups. The training group participated in 2 field-training sessions each week with training loads, match loads, and injury rates recorded. Subjects performed measurements of standard anthropometry (height, body mass, and sum of 7 skinfolds), muscular power (vertical jump), speed (10, 20, and 40 mts. sprint), agility ('L run'), and estimated maximal aerobic power (multi-stage fitness test) in December (off-season), March (pre-season), May (midseason), and August (end-season). Training loads progressively increased in the general preparatory phase of the season (pre-season period), and declined slightly during the competitive phase of the season. Match intensity and match loads decreased throughout the season. Increases in estimated maximal aerobic power and muscular power and reductions in skinfold thickness occurred during the general preparatory phase of the season, and were maintained throughout the competitive phase of the season. These findings suggested that high training loads in

20 49 the general preparatory phase of the season and low match loads in the competitive phase of the season allow junior rugby league players to maintain a high level of fitness throughout an entire competitive season. Mc Intyre (2005) evaluated and compared the mid-season physiological profiles of elite players. Physiological assessment was carried out on 29 inter-county Gaelic footballers, 30 inter-county hurlers, and 21 League of Ireland soccer players. The result of the study shows significant differences were reported for % body fat (p<0.05), aerobic capacity (p<0.05), flexibility (p<0.05), upper body strength (p<0.05), upper body strength endurance (p<0.05), abdominal endurance (p<0.05), and speed endurance (p<0.05), while there were no differences recorded for height, weight, or speed levels. A relatively heterogeneous body size is evident for all the three sports. Soccer players had lower body fat levels, greater aerobic capacity, greater strength endurance, and greater flexibility compared to both Gaelic footballers and hurlers, possibly due to specific training and conditioning programmes or physical adaptation to match the play. The greater strength of both Gaelic footballers and hurlers and the superior speed endurance levels of Gaelic footballers also reflect the physical nature of the sports. Similar speed levels amongst all three sports reflect the importance of speed for performance. The various physiological attributes for Gaelic football, soccer, and hurling reflect the physical requirements for success and participation in each of these field games.

21 50 Gabbett et al., (2006) compared the physiological and anthropometric characteristics of specific playing positions and positional playing groups in sub-elite rugby league players. Altogether, 415 sub-elite rugby league players underwent measurements of standard anthropometry (body mass, height, sum of four skinfolds), muscular power (vertical jump), speed (10-mts., 20-mts., and 40-mts. sprint), agility ("L" run), and estimated maximal aerobic power (multi-stage fitness test). Props were significantly heavier and had a greater skinfold thickness than all other playing positions. Centres, fullbacks, and hookers were faster than props over 40 mts. When the data were analysed according to positional commonality, props were taller, heavier, had a greater skinfold thickness, were less agile, and were slower over 10 mts. than all other positional groups. The hookers/halves and outside backs positional groups were significantly faster over 40 mts. than the back rowers and props positional groups. In addition, the hookers/halves and outside backs positional groups had significantly greater estimated maximal aerobic power than the props positional group. The results of this study demonstrated that few physiological and anthropometric differences exist among individual playing positions in sub-elite rugby league players, although props are taller, heavier, have greater skinfold thickness, slower 10-mts. and 40-mts. speed, less agility, and lower estimated maximal aerobic power than other positional groups. These findings provide normative data for sub-elite rugby league

22 51 players competing in specific individual positions and positional playing groups. Flangan (1984) through his study tried to find out whether there was any correlation between the pulse ratio test and the endurance score in sprint running. He reached the conclusion that there was correlation between physical efficiency ratings measured by pulse ratio test which was a reliable criterion for endurance. Balakrishnan (1997) from the analysis of data it was evident that there was significant variation between volleyball and basketball players in the selected variables (aerobic power, agility and resting pulse rate). Karpovich (1996) stated that pulse rate is affected by age, body position food intake, time of day, emotions and physical activity. Again he stated men, who are physically fit shows a smaller difference between recycling and standing pulse rate than the men in general. The resting pulse rate are highly trained athletes may be twenty or even thirty beats slower than the pulse rate of persons not in training. Ravi (2001) The results of the study showed that in functional characters there is no statistical significant difference among basketball players and volleyball players in their resting heart rate, resting systolic blood pressure, Resting diastolic blood pressure, resting respiratory rate and vital capacity. Cureton (1967) says that breath holding improves with practice but physical conditioning particularly of the endurance kind, involving

23 52 running and swimming activities, improve will power and against known standards. Any person with moderate good physical condition should be able to hold the breath for 50 seconds. Some endurance swimmers can hold their breath as long as 5 minutes. 3. Studies on Psychological Variables Kamlesh (1984) found highly performing athletes as more extroverted than the loco performance. High performing male athletes are more extroverted than the high performing female athletes, but low performing male athletes do not seem to differ with female low performers on the level of extroversion. And he added that track and field athletes are more introverted. Burton (1988) opined that cognitive anxiety is the mental component of anxiety caused by negative expectations about success or negative self-evaluation (e.g., worry, negative self-talk, and unpleasant imagery). Somatic anxiety is the physiological or affective component of anxiety that is directly related to autonomic/physiological arousal (e.g., what the athlete feels, rapid heart rate, butterflies in the stomach, tense muscles). Sample 1 comprised male (N = 15) and female (N = 13) collegiate swimmers. Each swimmer completed the Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory -- 2 (CSAI-2) prior to an early season invitational meet, a mid-season conference dual meet, and the Big Ten Conference championships. Sample 2 was composed of male (N = 31) and female (N =

24 53 39) serious swimmers who competed at the National Sports Festival (average age 17.4 yr). The CSAI-2 was completed once after practice two days before competition and again within one hour of the most important race at the meet. Sharma and Shukla (1992) found that the players of individual events and team games differed significantly on the extroversion and neuroticism trails of personality. In the case of both males and females, the athletic group was more extroverts and more neurotic than the Hockey group. Jupinder and Sandhu (1999) investigated the 'self concept' in relation to performance and age of female athletes. The sample consisted of 200 subjects (females) performing at inter college and inter-varsity levels in cricket, athletics softball and Kho-Kho. The self-concept questionnaire was used to collect the data. Analysis of variance 2 x 2 ANOVA was applied to analyse of data. The results indicated that university female athletes were found significantly better on physical, social, temperamental, educational, intellectual and total self-concept as compared to college level female athletes. No significant difference was found on moral self-concept. Female athletes of second age group (19-21 years) was found significantly better on physical and intellectual aspects of self-concept as compared to first age group (16 to 18 years) No significant difference was found between these groups on other variables of self-concept.

25 54 Pown Radha (1991) studied in psychological factors and soccer performance of south Indian university players. In this study, psychological factors, namely sports competition anxiety and aggressiveness were studied in relation to soccer ability. Accordingly, 100 South Indian Inter-university soccer players form the states of Tamilnadu, Kerala, Andrapradesh and Karnataka were selected. Sports competition anxiety test (SCAT) questionnaire and aggressiveness questionnaire (AR) developed by Rainer, Marten and Smith to measure the anxiety and aggressiveness were adopted. Experts subjectively rated the soccer playing ability of the subjects (0 to 10 point scales). He concluded that of these two psychological factors, aggressiveness is highly correlated with soccer playing ability at insignificant level. The results of this investigation revealed that moderate levels of anxiety and aggressiveness were present among the south Indian university soccer players. 4. General Studies Related to the Selected Variables Hebbelinck et al., (1980) summarized and compared anthropometric data on 51 of the female rowers in the 1976 Montreal Olympic Games to a female non-rower athletic sample and to a female Canadian university student sample. The rowers, being taller and heavier tended to be larger in all measures than the reference samples, with the exception that the university students had larger mean skinfold thickness. The Heath-Carter somatotype distribution of the rowers was

26 55 compared to that of the students and other female athletic samples. Proportionality profiles scaled to a unisex reference human or phantom showed both samples to be rather similar in proportional lengths except for longer tibiale height, wider transverse chest breadth, larger flexed arm and forearm girths, and smaller skinfold thicknesses in female rowers than in students. Fractionation of body mass by a fourcomponent model showed the rowers to have similar percent skeletal and residual masses, lower percent fat and higher percent muscle mass than students. Vitasalo (1982) studied the Fourteen Finnish and ten Russian elite male volleyball players for their anthropometric dimensions, maximal isometric trunk extension and flexion, leg extension strength and vertical jumping height. In addition, the height of rise of the body centre of gravity h (C.G.), and the height of the hand and ball were analyzed from a video tape in spike and block jumps taken during actual competition. The two teams were found to differ significantly in the h (C.G.) during a vertical jumping test where a preliminary counter movement was allowed and in the lengths of lower limbs and legs; the Russian volleyball players jumped higher and had longer lower extremities. In actual competition, the hands of the Russian players while performing a spike were on the average ten centimeters higher (p less than.01) than the hand of the Finnish players. No significant differences were found, however, between the teams in the h (C.G.)

27 56 during spiking. This finding seems to suggest that the Russians have better spike technique. Riezebos et al. (1983) measured twenty women on physiological, anthropometric, motor fitness and skill related variables in order to provide a current profile of elite female basketball players. Performance of each subject was evaluated firstly to determine the relationship between performance and selected variables and secondly to determine which variables best discriminated between the top and lower ranked performers. The profile of the elite female player had changed considerably subsequent to rule changes. The better basketball players exhibited a superior aerobic power and anaerobic capacity, were more accurate shooters and possessed less body fat. The factors which best discriminated between high and low performers were accuracy shooting, percent fat and VO 2 max. These variables could be used in a test battery to assist in the selection and development of potential basketball players. Uppal (1982) in his work found that the efficiency of an individual in performing physical activities depends basically on circulo-respiratory changes and training that result in the development of circulo respiratory efficiency. As a result of this study the investigator came to the conclusion that by endurance training the efficiency of the circulatory and respiratory system is improved, maximal O 2 uptake is increased maximal spoke volume and cardiac output increased,

28 57 ventilators efficiency is improved, lung volumes become larger and diffusion capacities increased. Extraordinary physical fitness is something significant for football players. Fitness includes muscular as well as cardio-vascular factors. As Thomas Hally asserts oneout come of a superior fitness level is that it allows the team as a whole to raise the phase if the game to outfit the opponent (Thomas, 1983). Jenson and Schultz (1970) observed that in the vertical jump, the forces are directed upward and the projection takes place with the centre of gravity directly over the base of support, after initiation of the upward movement of the arms and shoulders the movement that follow in close sequence are hip, knee, ankle extension, and toe flexion. The combined forces from these movements determined how height the body would be projected. Martin and Stull (1969) the vertical jump has been employed in numerous students for the purpose of classifying students, predicting athletic ability, measuring physical fitness and validating new tests and training programmes in physical education. Sundarrajan (1970) Stated that jumping events require height, depending mostly on leg length, leverage and leg strength. Greater leg length to total body height was advantageous to facilitate the vertical jumping ability and standing broad jump with long leg.

29 58 Clevne (1970) Vertical jump for height is highly dependent upon leg power and it is highly correlated with the standing board jump. The widest use of vertical jump is not only in volleyball, basketball and dance activities but also used in many other performances. In vertical jump the force is directed upward and the projection takes place with the center of gravity directly over the base of support. Bucher (1968) has proved that the pulse rate of the trained athlete has been 10 to 20 beets less than that of untrained individuals. It also gives the evidence that trained individuals return to normal pulse rate more rapidly than the untrained individuals. Bevery (1983) stated Long term exercise decreases resting heart rate that results in reduced total work for the heart. It also increases the depth of breathing at rest, which results in less work per minute for the inspiratory muscles. Mc Gowan (1969) found that basketball players scoring moderately high in a test of anxiety performed better in competitive situation than did those with lower anxiety scores. Tyagi and Subramanian (1992) conducted a study to find out the effect of competition and anxiety of college female hockey players. Forty four female hockey players who participated in the inter-collegiate hockey tournaments were administered the translated version of Rainer Marten s SCAT on three occasions. Results indicated that in-experienced

30 59 players possessed higher level of competition trait anxiety than the experienced players. 5. Summary of the Literature The review of literature helped the investigator to spot out relevant topics and variables. Further the literature helped the investigator to frame the suitable hypothese leading to the problems. The latest literature also helped the investigator to support her findings with regard to the problem. Further the literature collected in the study will also help the research scholar understanding in the similar areas. The reviews were presented under the four sections such as Physical (n=13) physiological (n=12), psychological (n=06) variables and general (n=11) with chronological and alphabetical order. All the research studies were presented in the section proves that the players were significantly differed with respect to game, training center and area on the selected dependent variables. The research studies reviewed are from many journals available in the websites such as ERIC websites the like, employed physical, physiological, psychological and bio-chemical variables at both school and college level.

31 60 The review of literature helped the researcher from the methodological point of view too. It was learnt that most of the research studies cited in this chapter on content analysis and experimental design as the appropriate methods for finding out the lapses and remediation.