STRUCTURE &FUNCTION EDITION OF THE BODY ELSEVIER

Transcription

1 EDITION STRUCTURE &FUNCTION OF THE BODY KevinT. Patton, PhD Founding Professor of Life Science, Emeritus Faculty St. Charles Community College Cottleville, Missouri Professor of Human Anatomy & Physiology Instruction New York Chiropractic College Seneca Falls, New York ELSEVIER Gary A.Thibodeau, P h D Chancellor Emeritus Professor Emeritus of Biology University of Wisconsin River Falls River Falls, Wisconsin

2 CONTENTS Introduction to the Body, 2 Scientific Method, 4 Levels of Organization, 4 Anatomical Position, 6 Anatomical Directions, 7 Directional Terms, 7 Anatomical Compass Rosette, 7 Planes of the Body, 8 Body Cavities, 9 Dorsal Cavities, 9 Ventral Cavities, 9 Body Regions, 11 The Balance of Body Functions, 12 Homeostasis, 12 Feedback Control, 14 Negative Feedback, 15 Positive Feedback, 15 Normal Fluctuations, 15 2 Chemistry of Life, 22 Levels of Chemical Organization, 23 Atoms, 23 Elements, Molecules, and Compounds, 24 Chemical Bonding, 24 Ionic Bonds, 25 Covalent Bonds, 25 Hydrogen Bonds, 26 Inorganic Chemistry, 27 Water, 27 Acids, Bases, and Salts, 28 Organic Chemistry, 29 Carbohydrates, 29 Lipids, 30 Proteins, 31 Nucleic Acids, 32 Ceils, 40 Overview of Cells, 41 Size and Shape, 41 Composition, 42 Parts of the Cell, 42 Plasma Membrane, 42 Cytoplasm, 43 Ribosomes, 44 Endoplasmic Reticulum, 44 Golgi Apparatus, 45 Mitochondria, 46 Lysosomes, 46 Centrosome, 46 Cell Extensions, 46 Nucleus, 47 Relationship of Cell Structure and Function, 47 Movement of Substances Through Cell Membranes, 48 Types of Membrane Transport, 48 Passive Transport Processes, 48 Active Transport Processes, 51 Cell Growth and Reproduction, 52 Cell Growth, 52 Cell Reproduction, 56 4 Tissues, 66 Introduction to Tissues, 67 Tissue Types, 67 Matrix, 68 Epithelial Tissue, 69 Introduction to EpithelialTissue, 69 Squamous Epithelium, 69 Cuboidal Epithelium, 70 Simple Columnar Epithelium, 71 Pseudostratified Epithelium, 71 Transitional Epithelium, 72 Connective Tissue, 73 Introduction to Connective Tissue, 73 Fibrous Connective Tissue, 74 Bone, 75 Cartilage, 76 BloodTissue, 76 Hematopoietic Tissue, 76 Muscle Tissue, 77 Introduction to Muscle Tissue, 77 Skeletal Muscle Tissue, 77 Cardiac Muscle Tissue, 77 Smooth MuscleTissue, 78 Nervous Tissue, 78 Ö Organ Systems, 84 Organ Systems, 86 Integumentary System, 86 Skeletal System, 86 Muscular System, 87 XV

3 XVI CONTENTS Nervous System, 88 Endocrine System, 88 Cardiovascular System, 89 Lymphatic and Immune Systems, 90 Respiratory System, 90 Digestive System, 91 Urinary System, 92 Reproductive Systems, 92 The Body as a Whole, 95 6 Skin and Membranes, 102 Body Membranes, 103 Classification of Membranes, 103 Epithelial Membranes, 104 Connective Tissue Membranes, 105 The Skin, 106 Structure of the Skin, 106 Hair, Nails, and Skin Receptors, 108 Skin Glands, 110 Functions of the Skin, 110 Skin Cancer, 112 Kaposi Sarcoma, 112 Squamous Cell Carcinoma, 112 Basal Cell Carcinoma, 112 Melanoma, 112 Burns, 113 Estimating Body Surface Area, 114 Classification of Burns, 114 / Skeletal System, 122 Functions of the Skeletal System, 123 Support, 123 Protection, 124 Movement, 124 Storage, 124 Hematopoiesis, 124 Gross Structure of Bones, 124 BoneTypes, 124 Structure of Long Bones, 124 Structure of Flat Bones, 125 Microscopic Structure of Bones, 125 Bone Tissue Structure, 125 Cartilage Tissue Structure, 125 Bone Development, 127 Making and Remodeling Bone, 127 Endochondral Ossification, 127 Intramembranous Ossification, 127 Axial Skeleton, 128 Skull, 129 Hyoid Bone, 131 Vertebral Column (Spine), 133 Thorax, 135 Appendicular Skeleton, 136 Upper Extremity, 136 Lower Extremity, 138 Skeletal Variations, 141 Male and Female Skeletal Differences, 141 Age Differences, 142 Environmental Factors, 142 Joints, 143 Articulation of Bones, 143 Kinds of Joints, Muscular System, 154 Muscle Tissue, 156 Skeletal Muscle, 156 Cardiac Muscle, 156 Smooth Muscle, 156 Structure of Skeletal Muscle, 156 Muscle Organs, 156 Muscle Fibers, 157 Functions of Skeletal Muscle, 159 Movement, 159 Posture, 160 Heat Production, 160 Fatigue, 160 Role of Other Body Systems in Movement, 161 Motor Unit, 161 Muscle Stimulus, 161 Types of Skeletal Muscle Contraction, 161 Twitch andtetanic Contractions, 161 Isotonic Contraction, 162 Isometric Contraction, 162 Effects of Exercise on Skeletal Muscle, 163 Movements Produced by Skeletal Muscle Contractions, 164 Angular Movements, 164 Circular Movements, 164 Special Movements, 165 Skeletal Muscle Groups, 167 Muscles of the Head and Neck, 169 MusclesThat Move the Upper Extremities, 169 Muscles of thetrunk, 169 Muscles That Move the Lower Extremities, 169 Nervous System, 178 Organization of the Nervous System, 179 Cells of the Nervous System, 180 Neurons, 180 Glia, 181 Nerves and Tracts, 182

4 CONTENTS XVÜ Nerve Signals, 182 Reflex Ares, 182 Nerve Impulses, 184 The Synapse, 185 Central Nervous System, 188 Brain, 188 Spinal Cord, 193 Coverings and Fluid Spaces, 194 Peripheral Nervous System, 197 Cranial Nerves, 197 Spinal Nerves, 197 Autonomie Nervous System, 199 Functional Anatomy, 200 Autonomie Conduction Paths, 200 Sympathetic Division, 201 Parasympathetic Division, 201 Autonomic Neurotransmitters, 202 Autonomic Nervous System as a Whole, Senses, 212 Classification of Senses, 213 General Senses, 214 Special Senses, 214 Sensory ReceptorTypes, 214 Sensory Pathways, 215 General Senses, 215 Distribution of General Sense Receptors, 215 Modes of Sensation, 215 Special Senses, 216 Vision, 216 Hearing and Equilibrium, 222 Taste, 226 Smell, 227 Integration of Senses, 227 Endocrine System, 236 Endocrine Glands, 237 Mechanisms of Hormone Action, 238 Nonsteroid Hormones, 238 Steroid Hormones, 239 Regulation of Hormone Secretion, 239 Negative Feedback, 239 Positive Feedback, 241 Levels of Regulation, 241 Prostaglandins, 241 Pituitary Gland, 242 Structure of the Pituitary Gland, 242 Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormones, 243 Posterior Pituitary Gland Hormones, 244 Hypothalamus, 245 Thyroid Gland, 245 Thyroid Hormone, 246 Calcitonin, 247 Parathyroid Glands, 247 Adrenal Glands, 247 Adrenal Cortex, 248 Adrenal Medulla, 249 Pancreatic Islets, 250 Female Sex Glands, 252 Male Sex Glands, 253 Thymus, 253 Placenta, 253 Pineal Gland, 253 Endocrine FunctionsThroughout the Body, 253 Other Endocrine Tissues, 253 Hormone Actions in Every Organ, 253 I Z Blood, 262 Blood Composition, 264 Blood Tissue, 264 Blood Plasma, 264 Formed Elements, 265 Hematopoiesis, 265 Red Blood Cells, 266 RBC Structure and Function, 266 RBC Count, 266 Hemoglobin, 267 Anemia, 267 Blood Types, 269 White Blood Cells, 271 Introduction to White Blood Cells, 271 WBC Count, 272 WBCTypes, 272 WBC Disorders, 273 Platelets and Blood Clotting, 273 Platelets, 273 Blood Clotting, 273 Abnormal Blood Clots, 273 I vj Cardiovascular System, 282 Heart, 284 Location, Size, and Position, 284 Functional Anatomy, 285 Heart Sounds, 286 Blood FlowThrough the Heart, 286 Blood Supply to the Heart Muscle, 287 Cardiac Cycle, 290 Electrical Activity of the Heart, 290 Cardiac Output, 292

5 XVÜi CONTENTS Blood Vessels, 294 Types, 294 Structure, 294 Functions, 296 Routes of Circulation, 299 Systemic and Pulmonary Routes of Circulation, 299 Hepatic Portal Circulation, 300 Fetal Circulation, 301 Hemodynamics, 302 Defining Blood Pressure, 302 Factors That Influence Blood Pressure, 303 Fluctuations in Arterial Blood Pressure, 304 Central Venous Blood Pressure, 306 Pulse, Lymphatic System and Immunity, 316 Lymphatic System, 318 Organization of the Lymphatic System, 318 Lymph, 319 Lymphatic Vessels, 319 Lymph Nodes, 320 Thymus, 321 Tonsils, 322 Spleen, 322 Immune System, 322 Function of the Immune System, 322 Nonspecific Immunity, 322 Specific Immunity, 324 Immune System Molecules, 325 Cytokines, 325 Antibodies, 326 Complement Proteins, 327 Immune System Cells, 327 Phagocytes, 328 Lymphocytes, Respiratory System, 340 Structural Plan, 342 Overview, 342 Respiratory Tract, 343 Respiratory Mucosa, 343 Upper Respiratory Tract, 344 Nose, 344 Pharynx, 344 Larynx, 345 Lower Respiratory Tract, 346 Trachea, 346 Bronchial Tree, 348 Alveoli, 349 Lungs, 349 Respiration, 351 Pulmonary Ventilation, 352 Mechanics of Breathing, 352 Pulmonary Volumes, 353 Regulation of Ventilation, 354 Breathing Patterns, 356 Gas Exchange and Transport, 356 Pulmonary Gas Exchange, 356 Systemic Gas Exchange, 357 BloodTransportation of Gases, Digestive System, 366 Overview of Digestion, 368 Wall of the Digestive Tract, 369 Mouth, 370 Structure of Oral Cavity, 370 Teeth, 371 Salivary Glands, 372 Pharynx, 373 Structure, 373 Function, 373 Esophagus, 374 Stomach, 375 Structure, 375 Function, 375 Small Intestine, 376 Structure, 376 Function, 377 Liver and Gallbladder, 379 Structure, 379 Function, 379 Pancreas, 380 Large Intestine, 380 Structure, 380 Function, 381 Appendix, 382 Peritoneum, 383 Location, 383 Extensions, 383 Digestion, 383 Overview of Digestion, 383 Enzymes and Chemical Digestion, 383 Carbohydrate Digestion, 384 Protein Digestion, 384 Fat Digestion, 385 End Products of Digestion, 385 Absorption, 385 Mechanisms of Absorption, 385 Surface Area and Absorption, 386

6 CONTENTS xix 17 Nutrition and Metabolism, 394 Metabolic Function of the Liver, 396 Macronutrients, 397 Dietary Sources of Nutrients, 397 Carbohydrate Metabolism, 397 Fat Metabolism, 399 Protein Metabolism, 400 Micronutrients, 400 Vitamins, 400 Minerals, 401 Regulating Food Intake, 401 Metabolic Rates, 401 Body Temperature, Urinary System, 408 Kidneys, 410 Location of the Kidneys, 410 Gross Structure of the Kidney, 410 Microscopic Structure, 411 Overview of Kidney Function, 413 Formation of Urine, 415 Filtration, 415 Reabsorption, 415 Secretion, 417 Summary of Urine Formation, 417 Control of Urine Volume, 418 Antidiuretic Hormone, 418 Aldosterone, 418 Atrial Natriuretic Hormone, 418 Abnormalities of Urine Volume, 418 Elimination of Urine, 419 Ureters, 419 Urinary Bladder, 420 Urethra, 420 Micturition, 421 Urinalysis, Fluid and Electrolyte Balance, 428 Body Fluid Volumes, 430 Body Fluid Compartments, 431 Extracellular Fluid, 431 Intracellular Fluid, 431 MechanismsThat Maintain Fluid Balance, 432 Overview of Fluid Balance, 432 Regulation of Fluid Output, 432 Regulation of Fluid Intake, 433 Exchange of Fluids by Blood, 434 Fluid Imbalances, 434 Dehydration, 434 Overhydration, 434 Importance of Electrolytes in Body Fluids, 435 Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes, 435 Ions, 435 Electrolyte Functions, 435 Electrolyte Imbalances, 437 Homeostasis of Electrolytes, 437 Sodium Imbalance, 437 Potassium Imbalance, 437 Calcium Imbalance, Acid-Base Balance, 444 ph of Body Fluids, 445 Using the ph Scale, 445 The ph Unit, 446 MechanismsThat Control ph of Body Fluids, 447 Overview of ph Control Mechanisms, 447 Integration of ph Control, 447 Buffers, 447 Respiratory Mechanism of ph Control, 449 Urinary Mechanism of ph Control, 450 ph Imbalances, 450 Acidosis and Alkalosis, 450 Metabolic and Respiratory Disturbances, 451 Compensation for ph Imbalances, I Reproductive Systems, 458 Sexual Reproduction, 459 Producing Offspring, 459 Male and Female Systems, 460 Male Reproductive System, 460 Structural Plan, 460 Testes, 460 Reproductive Ducts, 464 Accessory Glands, 465 External Genitals, 466 Female Reproductive System, 466 Structural Plan, 466 Ovaries, 467 Reproductive Ducts, 468 Accessory Glands, 471 External Genitals, 472 Menstrual Cycle, 473 Summary of the Reproductive Systems, 475

7 XX CONTENTS A.A. Growth, Development, and Aging, Prenatal Period, 486 Fertilization to Implantation, 486 Amniotic Cavity and Placenta, 487 Periods of Development, 488 Formation of the Primary Germ Layers, 489 Histogenesis and Organogenesis, 489 Birth Defects, 490 Birth, 491 Parturition, 491 Stages of Labor, 491 Postnatal Period, 493 Growth, Development, and Aging, 493 Infancy, 495 Childhood, 495 Adolescence, 496 Adulthood, 496 Older Adulthood, 496 Effects of Aging, 496 Integumentary System (Skin), 497 Skeletal System, 497 Central Nervous System, 497 Special Senses, 497 Cardiovascular System, 497 Respiratory System, 498 Urinary System, 498 Appendixes, 504 A Body Mass Index, 504 B Common Medical Abbreviations, Prefixes, and Suffixes, 505 C Chapter Test Answers, 507 Glossary, G-1 Illustration/Photo Credits, C-1 Index, 1-1