How Sociologists Do Research. 2.1 Science and Experience. OTTFFSSENT Puzzle: One, Two, Three, Four, Five, Six, Seven, Eight, Nine, Ten.

Transcription

1 Chapter 2 Hw Scilgists D Research 2.1 Science and Experience OTTFFSSENT Puzzle: One, Tw, Three, Fur, Five, Six, Seven, Eight, Nine, Ten. Levels f Experience Cncrete experience btained by seeing, tuching, tasting, smelling r hearing. Percepts the smallest bits f cncrete experience. Patterns cllectins f related precepts. Eg. A single dt precept, selectin f dts pattern. Tw characteristics f cncrete experience Experience yu share with all ther living creatures Cncrete level f experience is meaningless by its self Full f sensatins but n meaning. Abstract experience the imaginary wrld f the mind Cncepts abstract terms used t rganize cncrete experience. Prpsitins ideas that result frm finding the relatinship between cncepts. Eg. Yu see a pen, and develp different experiences fr each ne: clur, size, and flawed/unflawed. Each f them is a pen, naming prcess knwn as cnceptualizatin, rganize cncrete experience by placing the bjects int a single, meaningful categry. Scientific VS. Unscientific Thinking In everyday life, believing is seeing; ur bias influences what we bserve Chicken sup gets rid f clds- its wrks fr my family. Knwledge based n traditin Althugh sme are valid, science determines validity Read abut it in newspaper, magnets heal illness. Knwledge based n authrity Authritative surces can be wrng I was walking when I saw the accident Knwledge based n casual bservatin Observatins culd be uncertain, better t be fully cnscius Peple, wh are pr and wrk hard, get ahead, just like my family. Knwledge based n vergeneralizatin Scientists d sample (part f the ppulatin f research interest that is selected fr analysis) cases that represent the ppulatin (entire grup abut which the researcher wants t generalize). I m right because I can t think f any cntrary cases Knwledge based n selective bservatin We tend t ignre evidence that challenges us, scientists hwever use randm sampling t avid this s that the ppulatin is equally represented. Smith is pr even thugh he wrks hard, but he has a disability. S disabilities are the nly exceptin t that rule.

2 Knwledge based n qualificatin Easily accepted as valid, but scientists treat them as statements that must be further researched. Because it happened befre, they ll win next Thursday. Knwledge based n illgical reasning We expect reccurrence withut reasnable cause, ignring chance. Scientists use statistics t avid this. I just can t be wrng Knwledge based n eg-defence Passinate scientists, but scientific cmmunity puts strict limits. The matter is settled nce and fr all Knwledge based n premature clsure f inquiry We believe all relevant evidence has been gathered. Hwever, science believes things are nly temprary true There must be supernatural frces at wrk here Knwledge based n mystificatin When smething can t be explained by attribute it t frces that aren t bserved nr understd. Hwever, science is skeptical 2.2 Research Preliminaries The Research Cycle 1. Frmulate a research questin Must be answered by systematically cllecting and analyzing data Require evidence mre than faith 2. Review the existing research literature Must elabrate the questin seeing what thers have already dne Stimulates imaginatin 3. Selecting a research methd Each data methd has strengths and weaknesses 4. Cllecting data Observing subjects, interviewing, reading dcuments by/abut them. 5. Analyzing the data Cnfirm expectatins, cnfund thers 6. Publish the results Allws scrutiny and criticizing s that errrs can be crrected and new questins can be made Ethical Cnsideratins Respect the subjects rights D n harm. Right t decide whether they can be studied and in what way right t safety Right t decide whether their attitude and behavirs may be revealed t the public and in what way right t privacy Cannt use data that allws them t be traced t a particular subject right t cnfidentiality Subjects must be tld hw the infrmatin will be used They must be allwed t judge the degree f persnal risk invlved in answering questins right t infrmed cnsent.

3 Plagiarism is a n n. Measuring Variables Operatinalizatin prcess f translating cncepts int variables and prpsitins int hyptheses. Variable a measure f a cncept that has mre than ne value r scre Hypthesis a testable frm f a prpsitin (educated guess) After peratinalizatin, the riginal idea (prpsitin), which expressed a relatinship between cncepts, can be translated int a relatinship between variables (hypthesis). 2.3 The Main Methds f Scilgical Research Experiments 1960s teens watched TV, and the rate f vilent crime began t rise Experiment a carefully cntrlled artificial situatin that allws researchers t islate hypthesized causes and measure their effects precisely. Eg. Scial scientists investigated the cnnectin between media and real wrld vilence using experimental methds Randmizatin an experiment that invlves assigning each individual by chance prcesses t the grup that will be expsed t the presumed cause r t the grup that will nt be expsed t the presumed cause. Eg. Drawing numbers, assigning grup eliminates any inequality Dependent variable the presumed effect in a cause-and-effect relatinship Eg. Aggressive behaviur twards tys Independent variable the presumed cause in a cause-and-effect relatinship Eg. Vilent TV shw Watching vilent TV increases vilent behavir Experiments allw researchers t islate the cause f theretical interest and measure its effect with high reliability the degree t which a measurement prcedure yields cnsistent results. Remving peple frm natural envirnment lwers validity degree t which a measure actually measures what is intended t measure Why d experiments n the effects f media vilence lack validity? Vilent acts twards tys enable children t relieve anger, lwering chance f acting vilent in public Aggressive behaviur is nt cntrlled in a lab as it is in the real wrld Surveys Survey scilgists ask respndents questins abut their knwledge, attitudes, r behavir, either in a face-t-face r telephne interview r in a paper-and-pencil frmat. Clse-ended questins (ptins, numbered) easy t input data int cmputer Open-ended questins (uses wn wrds) useful when researchers dn t have enugh knwledge t create a list f answers They can make sure the survey questins elicit valid respnses by guarding against 4 dangers: 1. The exclusin f part f the ppulatin frm the sampling frame 2. The refusal f sme peple t participate in the survey 3. The unwillingness f sme respndents t answer questins frankly

4 4. The asking f cnfusing, leading, r inflammatry questins r questins referring t several, unimprtant, r nn-current events Reading Tables Cntingency table a crss-classificatin f cases by at least tw variables that allws yu t see hw, if at all, the variables are assciated. Independent variable x axis (presumed cause) Eg. TV viewing Dependent variable y axis (presumed effect) Eg. Attitude twards a man every punching an adult male Relatinship between tw variables exists if the value f ne variable changes with the values f the thers Psitive relatinship Eg. Higher apprval f punching f thse wh watch mre TV Negative relatinship Eg. Lwer apprval f punching f thse wh watch less TV Strnger the crrelatin strnger the relatinship greater percentage difference between the 2 relatinships Determining Causes Researchers are interested in casual relatinships Three casual criterin: The researcher must demnstrate that the variables systematically change tgether relatinship test. Researchers must establish sequencing - shwing that the independent variable changes befre changes in the dependent variable ccur. Nn-spuriusness Cntrl variable identify the cntext fr the relatinship between independent and dependent variables. Existence f cntrl variables ad an imprtant implicatin fr the interpretatin f relatinship: The appearance f relatinship between tw variables des nt always signify that the relatinship is real. Appearances and reality d nt always cincide. Relatinship authentic r fake? Spurius relatinship (phny) exists between an independent and a dependent variable when a cntrl variable causes change in bth the independent and dependent variables. Variatin in the third variable causes this In a graph n line wuld cnnect the independent and dependent variable shwing that they're nt really cnnected In cmparisn f the tw variables yu with see independent and dependent variables changing tgether systematically Eg. Relatinship between the number strks in a regin which is the independent variable and the number f births in the regin which is the dependent variable The relevant third variable is whether the regin is

5 rural r Urban Rural regins have mre strk sightings and higher birthrates than Urban regins d Changes in the variables is due t reginal differences Eg. Number f firetrucks at the scene (independent variable) and amunt f fire damage (dependent variable) Mre fire trucks shw up the mre damage - spurius - third variable is the severity f the fire The third variable must be uncnnected t the independent r dependent variable. T test whether a relatinship is spurius we must examine the independent- dependent variables under tw cnditins: When the third variable is allwed t change When a third variable is held cnstant Nn-spurius - the independent and dependent variable relatinship shuld be evident under bth cnditins Spurius - the independent dependent variable cnnectin is evident nly when the third variable is changing and it disappears when the third variable is held cnstant Examine strk sightings and babies fr all regins and examine the relatinship fr all kinds f fires. Then examine strk babies cnnectin nly fr rural regins and urban regins. And examine fire trucks fire damage cnnectin fr nly small fires and large fires. Evidence will shw n cnnectin between independent and dependent variables T cnclude there is a casual cnnectin between tw variables they must demnstrate that: The variable systematically change tgether (The relatinship criterin) The independent variable changed befre bserved changes in the dependent variable (the sequencing criterin) The bserved relatinship is an authentic ne (the nn-spurius criterin) Sampling Hw t draw a representative sample? Chsing vlunteers wuld be unrepresentative instead, we must chse respndents at randm Prbability sample- the units have unknwn and nnzer chance f being selected Yu need: Sampling frame-a list f all the peple in the ppulatin f interest Randmizing methd-a way f ensuring every persn in the sampling frame has a knwn and nnzer chance f being selected There are membership lists f rganizatins that are useful fr sampling frames but it culd be inadequate because many Canadians d nt belng t this institutin thus we use telephne directry - Still excludes hmeless peple, abriginal peple,

6 illegal immigrants, thse withut phnes and hmes. Once selected r created the sampling frame yu must chse respndents by chance prcess Example every 10th r every 20th persn Assign number ne t the first persn, number tw t the secnd persn and s n. Create a separate list f randm numbers using a cmputer r cnsulting the table f randm numbers. List f numbers shuld have the same number entries f the number f peple yu want in yur sample. The individual wh's assigned numbers crrespnd t the randm numbers by the peple in yur sample. Sample size and statistical significance Hw many respndents d yu need in a sample? Depends n hw much yu're willing t tlerate Large samples give mre precise results frm small samples t hwever a randm sample f 1500 peple will give acceptably accurate results even if the ppulatin is all f Canada. 20 ut f 1500 individuals selected -accurate within 2.5% f the actual ppulatin values. This level f accuracy is called the margin f errr. Field research Field research - research based n the bservatin f peple in their natural settings. Strategies t ensure accurate bservatins: Detached bservatin- invlves classifying and cunting the behavir f interest accrding t a predetermined scheme. Tw prblems: Reactivity-ccurs when the presence f the researcher causes the bserved peple t cnceal certain things r act artificially t impress the researcher The meaning f the bserved behavir may remain bscure t the researcher Example wink- invluntary muscle cntractin, secret, r sexual T avid these tw prblems: Participant bservatin- invlves carefully bserving peple's face-t-face interactins and participating in their lives ver a lng perid f time, thus achieving a deep and sympathetic understanding f what mtivates them t act in the way they d Example hw media vilence may influence yuth vilence - Spent time in schls, lived in the neighbrhds, interviewed students, teachers, neighbrs, shter's family members and studied pliced and psychlgical reprts and the shter's wn writings. They fund that nly small numbers f yung peple were weakly cnnected t everyne ur risk f translating media vilence int their behavir. Strengths f participant bservatin: It allws researchers t develp a deep and sympathetic understanding f the way peple see the wrld - Explratry stage f research- When investigatrs have nly a vague sense f what they're lking, what they will discver and where thery is weakly develped.

7 Weakness: It invlves just ne researcher in ne scial setting, it is difficult t knw if ther researchers wuld measure things in the same way- the reliability prblem N way t check whether the researchers actually measuring what they think is being measured-the validity prblem It is difficult t knw hw bradly the findings maybe generalized t ther settings- the generalizability prblem Analyzing f existing dcuments and fficial statistics Existing dcuments and fficial statistics- Are created by peple ther than the researcher fr purpses ther than scilgical research Example diaries, newspapers and unpublished histrical wrks Example scilgists tried t discver the cnditins that led sme cuntries the dictatrship t demcracy, t ecnmic develpment t underdevelpment, and glbalizatin. Trying t answer these questins using unpublished histries f the main surce f data n ther methd wuld cver and analyze such prblems. Census data plice crime reprts and recrds f key life events are the mst frequently used surces f fficial statistics. Existing dcuments and fficial statistics have advantages: Save time and mney because they're available at n cst Cver the entire ppulatin under cllected using rigrus and unifrm methd des yielding high quality data It's the nly methd that des nt require live subjects s it is useful fr histrical analysis Since it des nt require live subjects reactivity is nt a prblem the researcher's presence des nt influence the subject behavir Disadvantages: Data status surces are nt created with the researchers needs in mind -they cntain biases that reflect the interests f the individuals and rganizatins that created them - may be less ideal fr research purpses and must be treated cautiusly The imprtance f being subjective Scilgical research questins cme frm real life experiences and the cncerns f tday's wrld Subjectivity yu leads and bjectivity fllws Example Subjectivity leads-feminism is up plitical mvement brught many cncerns f the attentin f the Canadian public. Objectivity fllwed- the large part f scilgical cmmunity began ding rigrus research n feminist inspired issues and greatly refined ur knwledge f them. Appraching scilgical prblems frm a male perspective is nw less cmmn Cannt use ne gender t draw cnclusins abut all peple. Methd Strengths Weaknesses Experiments High reliability; excellent fr Lw validity fr many establishing cause-and-effect scilgy prblems

8 Surveys Participant bservatin Analysis f existing dcuments and fficial statistics relatinships High reliability; useful fr establishing cause-and-effect relatinships; gd generalizability if based n representative samples Allws researchers t get inside the minds f their subjects and discver their wrldview; especially useful fr explratry research where thery is weakly develped Often inexpensive and easy t btain; prvides gd cverage; useful fr histrical analysis; nn-reactive Ptential prblems with validity unless researchers take stringent precautins Lw reliability; lw validity; lw generalizability; nt very useful fr establishing causeand-effect relatinships Can cntain biases reflecting the interests f their creatrs and nt the interests f the researcher