Lecture Outline Schemas Part 1. Bottom-Up Processing

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1 Lecture Outline Schemas Part 1 Bottom up vs. Top Down Processing Schemas Definition Functions Activation Structure Bottom-Up Processing Definition: Processing of information that is driven by individual features of stimuli. Example: putting a puzzle together, not knowing what the picture will be. 1

2 Top-Down Processing Definition: Processing of information that is driven by past knowledge and experience. Example: putting a puzzle together, knowing what the picture will be. Schemas Definition: Mental representations of knowledge. Preconceptions Theories Expectations 2

3 Schemas Schemas contain two kinds of knowledge 1. Attributes Birds: wings, eat worms, fly Women: nurturing, emotional, take care of children 2. Relations among attributes Birds can fly because they have wings Taking care of children makes women nurturing Schemas Schemas do not have to be veridical (accurate). Example: Stereotypes are a kind of schema and stereotypes are sometimes inaccurate. 3

4 Functions of Schemas General Function: Help people understand incoming stimuli Specific Functions: categorize new instances infer additional attributes guide interpretation and attention Function 1: Categorize New Instances People classify new instances into categories Schemas provide information about the features shared by category members 4

5 Function 2: Infer Additional Attributes After categorization, people infer features from schema attributes Categorization: Inference: Function 2: Infer Additional Attributes Warm-Cold Study: Asch (1946) Purposes: Demonstrate that some traits have stronger affect on inferences than others Demonstrate how people make inferences from person schemas 5

6 Warm-Cold Study: Asch (1946) Procedure: Participants heard description of person Participants made inferences about person by selecting one trait from trait pairs»generous - ungenerous»shrewd - wise»dishonest - honest»frivolous - serious Warm-Cold Study: Asch (1946) Description Content: intelligent skillful industrious determined practical cautious (cold vs. warm) Manipulation 6

7 Warm-Cold Study: Asch (1946) Hypothesis: Manipulation of Warm- Cold have large effect on inferences Results: Trait List Warm Cold generous 91% 8% good-natured 94% 17% sociable 91% 38% Warm-Cold Study: Asch (1946) Hypothesis: Manipulation of Polite-Blunt will have weaker effect on inferences than Warm-Cold Results: Study 1 Study 2 Warm Cold Polite Blunt generous 91% 8% 87% 33% good-natured 94% 17% 91% 55% sociable 91% 38% 91% 55% 7

8 Warm-Cold Study: Asch (1946) Conclusions: Some traits are central in one s schema (w-c), others are peripheral (p-b) People use schemas to make inferences Function 3: Guide Interpretation and Attention Schemas enable people to interpret ambiguous events Crying = Mourning at a funeral Crying = Joy at a wedding 8

9 Function 3: Guide Interpretation and Attention Stereotypes One kind of schema that people use to interpret ambiguous events Racial Bias Study: Sagar & Schofield (1980) Purpose: Demonstrate that stereotypes bias interpretation of ambiguous events Participants: 40 African American; 40 White 9

10 Racial Bias Study: Sagar & Schofield (1980) Procedures Participants presented with four ambiguous drawings: bumping requesting food poking taking a pencil Racial Bias Study: Sagar & Schofield (1980) Procedures Participants rated actor s behavior as... mean threatening playful friendly 10

11 Racial Bias Study: Sagar & Schofield (1980) Actor Race African American White Participant Race African American White Racial Bias Study: Sagar & Schofield (1980) Subject Actor Mean & Threatening White W 8.28 AA 8.99 African W 7.38 American AA 8.40 Conclusion: White and African American participants rated identical behavior as more mean and threatening when actor was African American. Schemas influence the interpretation of events. 11

12 Washing Clothes Study: von Hippel et al. (1993) Background: Schemas facilitate memory Purpose of Study: Challenge existing thought--can schemas inhibit memory? Washing Clothes Study: von Hippel et al. (1993) Hypothesis: Schemas inhibit memory overall, but enhance retrieval of schema-relevant info Without schema: People encode more info but have worse retrieval With schema: People encode less info but have better retrieval -- schema acts as cue. 12

13 Washing Clothes Study: von Hippel et al. (1993) Step 1: Participants (n = 24) read scenario. Manipulation: Schema activation 1/2 participants given title: Washing Clothes 1/2 participants not given title Step 2: Completed Word Fragments: Words from scenario, but multiple answers e.g., c o m complicated communicate Washing Clothes Study: von Hippel et al. (1993) Dependent Variable: Number of word fragments solved with words from scenario Better memory = more word fragments solved with words from scenario 13

14 Washing Clothes Study: von Hippel et al. (1993) Results: # word fragments solved with words from scenario Given title 19 Not given title 22 Conclusion: Schemas can inhibit memory Schema Functions 4 & 5: Function 4: Schemas aid communication schemas fill in details Function 5: Schemas aid reasoning can combine existing schemas to help understand conflicting information e.g., Harvard Educated Carpenter 14

15 Schema Activation 1. Salience: salient schemas activated before less salient schemas Schema Activation 2. Priming: Recently or frequently primed schemas activated before less recently or less frequently activated schemas Primes: Environmental cues e.g., a bed primes thoughts of sleeping 15

16 Priming Study: Gilbert & Hixon (1991) Purpose: a) show that primes can activate schemas (stereotype) b) show that activation requires cognitive resources Priming Study: Gilbert & Hixon (1991) Participants: Female participants (n = 71) Procedure: Watched video Experimenter showed cards with word fragments on them Participants completed word fragments 16

17 Priming Study: Gilbert & Hixon (1991) Manipulations: 1. Activation of Asian Stereotype Yes: Experimenter Asian No: Experimenter Caucasian 2. Cognitive business Busy: Rehearsed 8 digit number during video Not Busy: Did not rehearse number during video Priming Study: Gilbert & Hixon (1991) Word Fragment Task: Word fragments had multiple correct answers, one that was associated with Asians S _ Y S _ O R T R I _ E P O L I _ E N _ P Dependent variable: # Asian word completions 17

18 Priming Study: Gilbert & Hixon (1991) Busy Asian Caucasian Not Busy Conclusion: Primes can activate schema, if people have sufficient cognitive resources Schema Activation 3. Chronic Accessibility: Chronically accessible schemas used more than others Individual differences self-defining important to one s self-concept 18

19 Schema Activation 4. Goals: People s goals influence which schemas are activated Feedback Study: Fein & Spencer (1997) Purpose: To show that goal to bolster self-esteem activates negative stereotypes Step 1: Intelligence test Step 2: Feedback Step 3: State Self-Esteem scale Step 4: Evaluate job applicant Step 5: State Self-Esteem scale 19

20 Feedback Study: Fein & Spencer (1997) Manipulations: Feedback: positive (93rd %) negative (46th %) Schema Activation Job applicant = Jewish Job applicant = Italian Feedback Study: Fein & Spencer (1997) Hypotheses: In positive feedback condition: Jewish and Italian applicant judged similarly In negative feedback condition: Jewish applicant judged less favorably Denigrating Jewish applicant raises self-esteem 20

21 Feedback Study: Fein & Spencer (1997) Evaluation Jewish Italian Positive Feedback Negative Feedback Feedback Study: Fein & Spencer (1997) Change in Self-Esteem Positive Feedback Negative Feedback Jewish Italian 21

22 Structure of Schemas Classical View: There is a set of necessary and sufficient attributes needed for an instance to belong to a schema Classical View: Assumptions and Limitations Assumption 1: Schemas have clear-cut boundaries Limitation 1: Difficulty specifying defining features of instances 22

23 Classical View: Assumptions and Limitations Assumption 2: All instances equally typical Limitation 2: Not all members perceived as equally typical Classical View: Assumptions and Limitations Test of Assumption 2: All instances equally typical Eleanor Rosch Typicality ratings Reaction times Production of examples 23

24 Classical View: Assumptions and Limitations Assumption 3: Categorization of new instances simple Limitation 3: Not all new instances are easily categorized Probabilistic View of Schemas Probabilistic View Prototype Model Exemplar Model Schema list of typical features no feature necessary or sufficient family resemblance 24

25 Probabilistic View of Schemas Process of Categorization Compare features of instance to fuzzy set of features Similarity = number of features an instance shares with group members Hi similarity = categorization as group member Probabilistic View of Schemas Addresses Limitations of Classical View Schemas do not have clear-cut boundaries Group members vary in typicality Categorization of new instances can be difficult 25

26 Prototype Model Schemas represented as list of typical features (a prototype). Prototype = list of features that are typical of group members Example: Bird has feathers lives in nest eats worms, etc. Prototype Model Process of categorization: Match features of a new instance to prototype. High similarity = categorization as group member 26

27 Exemplar Model Schemas represented as groups of specific instances (exemplars). Exemplar = specific group members Bird: robin crow hummingbird Exemplar Model Process of categorization: Match features of a new instance to exemplar. High similarity = categorization as group member 27

28 Impact of Probabilistic View DSM II: Depression: an excessive reaction of depression due to an internal conflict or to an identifiable event such as the loss of a love object or cherished possession Impact of Probabilistic View DSM IV-R: Depression: depressed mood for 2 years plus 2 additional symptoms insomnia appetite loss fatigue inability to concentrate low self-esteem loss of pleasure in activities restlessness 28

29 Criticisms of Probabilistic View Criticism 1: What features to match on Any instance can match any other instance on some features Criticisms of Probabilistic View Criticism 2: People have theories about relation among features Birds have wings and fly Also know that birds fly because they have wings 29

30 Raccoon Study: Keil, 1989 Purpose: Demonstrated that children do not categorize on basis of feature matching alone Raccoon Study: Keil, 1989 Children still believed that the skunk was a raccoon Conclusion: People do not engage in simple feature matching as prototype and exemplar model propose 30

31 Exam 1 Next Thursday 31

Lecture Outline Schemas Part 1. Bottom-Up Processing. Schemas. Top-Down Processing. Bottom up vs. Top Down Processing. Schemas

Lecture Outline Schemas Part 1 Bottom-Up Processing Bottom up vs. Top Down Processing Schemas Definition Functions Activation Structure Definition: Processing of information that is driven by individual