Drive-reducing behaviors (eating, drinking) Drive (hunger, thirst) Need (food, water)

Transcription

1 Instinct Theory: we are motivated by our inborn automated behaviors that generally lead to survival. But instincts only explain why we do a small fraction of our behaviors. Does this behavior adequately explain behavior? Motivation

2

3 Drive Reduction Theory Drive-Reduction Theory: The idea that a physiological need creates a state of tension (a drive) motivating and organism to satisfy their needs. Drive-reduction theory states that a person will eat food as a result of a drive of hunger (a state of tension that humans seek to correct). The theory aims for homeostasis, or biological balance Need (food, water) Drive (hunger, thirst) Drive-reducing behaviors (eating, drinking)

4 Drive Reduction The physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis, the maintenance of a steady internal state (e.g., maintenance of steady body temperature). Food Drive Reduction Stomach Full Empty Stomach (Food Deprived) Organism 4

5 Incentive Where our needs push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives. A food-deprived person who smells Thrashers french fries (incentive) feels a strong hunger drive. Behavior not always motivated internally But, we are not just homeostatic systems. 5

6 (Optimum) Arousal Theory We are motivated to seek an optimum level of arousal, not to eliminate it.

7 Yerkes Dodson Law of Optimum Arousal

8 Maslow s Hierarchy Maslow said that there is a natural hierarchy or rank to the needs humans have. Before one of the higher needs can be fulfilled, the needs on the levels below must be met, at least to some degree. Most needs are met at a rate of about 85% before a person can move onto a higher need.

9 Maslow s Hierarchy

10 Maslow s Hierarchy/Humanistic Maslow argued that humans behave to satisfy specific types of needs. He broke them into five categories: 1. Biological: Hunger, thirst, warmth 2. Safety: Avoid danger 3. Attachment: Wanting to belong to something 4. Esteem: Seeing oneself as competent and effective 5. Self-actualization: Being all that you can possibly be

11 Criticism of Maslow Although critics will admit Maslow s Hierarchy was the first real step toward a comprehensive theory of motivation, they say it isn t complete. People often neglect their basic biological needs for more social needs Cross-cultural needs: individualistic vs. collectivist cultures see needs differently Sensation seeking: Why would someone jump out of a plane for fun? Other areas it doesn t explain?

12 What is Emotion? Emotion is a 4 part process consisting of: physiological arousal cognitive interpretation, subjective feelings behavioral expression. While our emotions are very different, they all involve a state of mental and physical arousal focused on some event of importance.

13 Why Do We Have Emotional Responses? - probable adaptive value - anger fighting - fear running / hiding - love protection / caring - disgust avoiding

14 Why Do We Have Emotional Responses? - external emotional cues very useful in social situations - facial expressions - body language / posture - e.g., if others can see we are angry, they can avoid us, or avoid provoking us

15 Expressed Emotion Emotions are expressed on the face, by the body, and by the intonation of voice. Is this non-verbal language of emotion universal? 15

16 Nonverbal Communication Most of us are good at deciphering emotions through non-verbal communication. In a crowd of faces a single angry face will pop out faster than a single happy face (Fox et al. 2000). 16

17 Experience can sensitize us to certain emotions. Shown a series of faces that morphed from sadness or fear to anger, physically abused children are much quicker to detect anger. When shown the middle face, evenly mixing fear with anger, physically abused children were more likely than non-abused children to perceive the face as angry. 17

18 Women are much better at discerning nonverbal emotions than men. When shown sad, happy, and scary film clips women expressed more emotions than men. Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior 18

19 Hard-Wired Emotions Are some emotional responses innate?

20 Hard-Wired Emotions Social referencing - Babies rely on parent s emotional signals

21 Hard-Wired Emotions Babies also seem to have innate ability to interpret the facial expressions of others

22 Universality of Emotions Despite different languages, cultures and social norms, studies suggest that people speak and understand substantially the same facial language the world around.

23

24 The innate hypothesis DARWIN (1872) proposed that the facial expression of emotion evolved as part of the actions necessary for life: Anger: Frowning (to protect eyes in anticipation of attack) Surprise: Eyebrows raised (to open the eyes wide to facilitate sight) Mouth opens (to draw in air quickly to put the body in a state of readiness)

25 Fear:Movements similar to surprise but more tense - Raised eyebrows, Open mouth (Fear was more problematic for Darwin - Conflict between readiness + protection) Disgust: Lip movements are related to expelling offensive matter from the mouth. By-products lip movement include: Nose wrinkling movements Lines below lower eyelid and raising lower eyelid Cheek raising 25

26 Happiness Smiling - raised corners of the mouth Sadness Upturned inner corners of the eyebrows 26

27 Paul Ekman - Seven Basic Emotions Ekman, a leading psychologist in emotions, suggests humans everywhere can recognize seven basic emotions: sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt, happiness and surprise. He says that these are Universal emotions Here is a sample of 6 of Ekman s emotions. Which one is missing?

28 Neurocultural model - Ekman Facial expressions are a result of separate systems for cognition and emotion that interact producing the dual influence of (1) universal, biologically innate factors Sub-cortical system (beneath cerebral cortex) Spontaneous facial expression Bottom-up reflexive expression Universal (2) culturally specific, learned display rules. Cortical system (cerebral cortex involvement) Mediates voluntary system (display rules) Controlled Top-down contrived expression

29 Display rules A social group's informal norms about when, where, and how one should express emotions. when those rules are violated nobody knows quite how to react. Consider: If, when preparing to light your daughters birthday cake, you notice that there is a finger mark in the cake, what might you expect a person to do? desperate housewives 29

30 Cultural Differences in Expressive Behavior: Display Rules Evidence for neuro-cultural model Showed 25 American and 25 Japanese subjects a neutral and a stress-inducing film (a circumcision) 1. Watching film on own (unknowingly taped) Both groups displayed same facial expressions watching the film 2. Interviewed by member of own culture Group differences in facial displays used when discussing with peers (Cited in Ekman, Freisen, & Ellsworth, 1972)

31 Cultural influence on expression: Japanese smiled out of politeness to interviewer (graduate student) Japanese custom to smile when addressed (especially by an authority) Less rude for Americans to watch film when addressed Discrepencies can be explained by display rules. Frindlund,

32 Display rules serve to mediate neural impulses (we saw what happens when display rules aren t followed in the birthday party clip. It makes people surprised and uneasy.) Display rules can prevent triggering of facial muscles Reduce the output of the display Make the display shorter/substitute alternative display 32

33 Are there cross-cultural differences in recognition accuracy rates? Americans are better at recognizing anger, disgust, fear, and sadness than Japanese Cultural source of these differences may be individualism. Individualism is associated with better recognition of anger, fear, and happiness.