Psychology in Your Life

Transcription

1 Sarah Grison Todd Heatherton Michael Gazzaniga Psychology in Your Life FIRST EDITION Chapter 9 Motivation and Emotion 2014 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

2 Section 9.1 What Motivates Our Behavior?

3 9.1 What Motivates Our Behavior? The words emotion and motivation come from the same Latin word, movere, to move.

4 Many Factors Influence Motivation Motivation Factors of differing strength that energize, direct, and sustain behavior See figures 9.2a, 9.2b, 9.2c, 9.2d, and table 9.1 next slide

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6 Many Factors Influence Motivation Satisfaction of needs Need: A state of biological or social deficiency Need hierarchy: An arrangement of needs, in which basic survival needs must be met before people can satisfy higher needs Maslow s theory is an example of humanistic psychology Self-actualization See figure 9.3 next slide

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8 Many Factors Influence Motivation Drive reduction and incentives Drive: A psychological state that, by creating arousal, motivates an organism to engage in a behavior to satisfy a need Basic biological drives, such as thirst or hunger, help animals maintain a stable condition. A stable condition is also called equilibrium See figure 9.4 next slide

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10 Many Factors Influence Motivation Drive reduction and incentives Homeostasis: tendency for bodily functions to remain in equilibrium Arousal: Physiological activation (such as increased brain activity) or increased autonomic responses (such as increased heart rate, sweating, or muscle tension) Incentives: External objects or external goals, rather than internal drives, that motivate behaviors See figure 9.5 next slide

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12 Many Factors Influence Motivation Arousal and performance The Yerkes-Dodson law describes the relationship between arousal, motivation, and performance This law states that performance increases with arousal up to an optimal point. After that point, more arousal will result in decreasing performance. A graph of this relationship is shaped like an upside-down U See figure 9.6 next slide

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14 Many Factors Influence Motivation Arousal and performance Everyone is motivated to engage in behaviors based on their own optimal level of arousal Pleasure Sigmund Freud proposed that needs are satisfied based on the pleasure principle. According to Freud, the pleasure principle motivates people to seek pleasure and avoid pain See figures 9.7a, 9.7b next slide

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16 Some Behaviors Are Motivated for Their Own Sake Extrinsic motivation A desire to perform an activity because of the external goals toward which that activity is directed See slide 9.8a next slide

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18 Some Behaviors Are Motivated for Intrinsic motivation Their Own Sake Intrinsic motivation: A desire to perform an activity because of the value or pleasure associated with that activity, rather than for an apparent external goal or purpose See figure 9.8b next slide

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20 Some Behaviors Are Motivated for Their Own Sake Self-determination and self-perception In self-determination theory, extrinsic rewards may reduce the intrinsic value of an activity because such rewards undermine our feeling that we are choosing to do something for ourselves In self-perception theory, we are seldom aware of our specific motives. Instead, we make inferences about our motives according to what seems to make the most sense

21 We Set Long-Term Goals Henry Murray proposed a number of basic psychosocial needs, including the needs for power, autonomy, achievement, and play Challenging goals encourage effort, persistence, and concentration

22 We Set Long-Term Goals Self-efficacy and achievement motivation Self-efficacy is the expectation that your efforts will lead to success Achievement motivation: The need, or desire, to attain a certain standard of excellence

23 We Set Long-Term Goals Delayed gratification The ability to delay gratification is an indicator of success in life Marshmallow study See figure 9.9 next slide

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25 We Have a Need to Belong Need to belong theory The need for interpersonal attachments is a fundamental motive that has evolved for adaptive purposes See figure 9.10 next slide

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27 Section 9.2 What Motivates Eating and Sexual Behavior?

28 Many Biological Systems Motivate Eating Stomach and bloodstream People who have had their stomachs surgically removed due to illness continue to report feeling hungry even though they no longer have a stomach The existence of receptors in the bloodstream that monitor levels of vital nutrients

29 Many Biological Systems Motivate Hormones Eating Leptin: A hormone that is associated with decreasing eating behavior based on longterm body fat regulation. Ghrelin: A hormone that is associated with increasing eating behavior based on shortterm signals in the bloodstream

30 Many Biological Systems Motivate The brain Eating The hypothalamus is the brain structure that most influences eating Seeing tasty food makes a person crave it, and this response is associated with activity in the limbic system

31 Eating Is Influenced by Learning Conditioned to eat The internal clock leads to various anticipatory responses that motivate eating behavior and prepare the body for digestion

32 Eating Is Influenced by Learning Familiarity and eating preferences People s avoidance of unfamiliar foods, which may be dangerous or poisonous, makes evolutionary sense and is adaptive What we prefer to eat is also determined by the ethnic, cultural, and religious values of our own upbringing and experiences See figures 9.11a, 9.11b next slide

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34 Eating Is Influenced by Learning Cultural influences Even when people are starving to death, they may refuse to eat perfectly nutritious substances because they are culturally unfamiliar See figure 9.12 next slide

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36 We Have a Drive for Sexual Relations Alfred Kinsey and his colleagues provided shocking at the time (1940s) evidence that women s sexual attitudes and behaviors were in many ways similar to those of men

37 We Have a Drive for Sexual Sexual behavior Relations William Masters and Virginia Johnson Sexual response cycle: A four-stage pattern of physiological and psychological responses during sexual activity Excitement phase Plateau phase Orgasm phase Resolution phase

38 We Have a Drive for Sexual Hormones Relations Hormones influence physical development of the brain and body during puberty. They also influence sexual behavior through motivation

39 We Have a Drive for Sexual Hormones Relations Androgens: A class of hormones that are associated with sexual behavior and are more prevalent in males; testosterone is one example Estrogens: A class of hormones that are associated with sexual behavior and are more prevalent in females; estradiol is one example See figure 9.14 next slide

40 Cultural Rules Shape Sexual Interactions Cultures may seek to restrain and control sex for a variety of reasons, including maintaining control over the birthrate, helping to establish paternity, and reducing conflicts

41 Cultural Rules Shape Sexual Interactions Gender differences in sexual behavior Double standard: premarital sex is morally and socially acceptable for men, not women Sexual strategies theory: Women and men have evolved distinct mating strategies because they have faced different adaptive problems over the course of human history. The strategies used by each sex maximize the probability of passing along their genes to future generations See figure 9.15 next slide

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43 Cultural Rules Shape Sexual Mate preferences Interactions In seeking mates, both sexes avoid certain characteristics, such as insensitivity, bad manners, loudness or shrillness, and the tendency to brag about sexual conquests

44 Cultural Rules Shape Sexual Mate preferences Interactions In a study of 92 married couples in 37 cultures, women were observed generally to prefer men who were considerate, honest, dependable, kind, understanding, fond of children, well liked by others, good earners, ambitious, career oriented, from a good family, and fairly tall. Men tended to value good looks, cooking skills, and sexual faithfulness

45 We Differ in Our Sexual Biological factors Orientations The best available evidence suggests that prenatal exposure to hormones might play some role in sexual orientation ext_from=pl&index=23 - Some research suggests the hypothalamus may be related to sexual orientation Although these findings are thoughtprovoking, there is currently not enough evidence to establish a causal connection between brain regions and sexual orientation

46 We Differ in Our Sexual Orientations Stability of sexual orientation There is no good evidence that sexual orientation can be changed through therapy Bisexual people are sexually attracted to people of both sexes and sometimes have sexual relationships with people of both sexes

47 Section 9.3 How Do We Experience Emotions?

48 9.3 How Do We Experience Emotion Emotions? Feelings that involve subjective evaluation, physiological processes, and cognitive beliefs Primary emotions Evolutionarily adaptive emotions that are shared across cultures and associated with specific physical states; they include anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, and possibly surprise and contempt

49 9.3 How Do We Experience Emotions? Secondary emotions Blends of primary emotions; they include remorse, guilt, shame, submission, and anticipation

50 There Are Three Major Theories of Emotion James-Lange theory James-Lange theory: Emotions result from the experience of physiological reactions in the body Facial feedback hypothesis See figures 9.18, 9.18a, 9.18b next slide

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52 There Are Three Major Theories Cannon-Bard theory of Emotion Cannon-Bard theory: Emotions and bodily responses both occur simultaneously due to the ways that parts of the brain process information See figure 9.20 next slide

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54 There Are Three Major Theories of Emotion Schachter-Singer two-factor theory Two-factor theory: How we experience an emotion is influenced by the cognitive label we apply to explain the physiological changes we have experienced Emotion label Misattribution of arousal Excitation transfer See figure 9.21 next slide

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56 Both Body and Brain Are The amygdala Important for Emotion The amygdala processes the emotional significance of stimuli, and it generates immediate emotional and behavioral reactions

57 Both Body and Brain Are The amygdala Important for Emotion Information reaches the amygdala along two separate pathways: The first path is a quick and dirty system that processes sensory information nearly instantaneously The second path is somewhat slower, but it leads to more deliberate and more thorough evaluations

58 Both Body and Brain Are The amygdala Important for Emotion It is involved in the perception of social stimuli We read someone s facial expressions; the amygdala helps us interpret them See figures 9.23a, 9.23b next slide

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60 Both Body and Brain Are Important for Emotion The prefrontal cortex There is evidence that the left and right frontal lobes are affected by different emotions Injury to the frontal lobes often impairs emotional experience

61 We Regulate Our Emotional States Gross outlined several strategies people use to regulate their emotions Reappraisal Humor Thought suppression and rumination Distraction Reappraisal We directly alter our emotional reactions to events by thinking about those events in more neutral terms

62 We Regulate Our Emotional States Humor Humor has many mental and physical health benefits Laughter improves the immune system and stimulates the release of hormones, dopamine, serotonin, and endorphins When we laugh, we experience rises in circulation, blood pressure, skin temperature, and heart rate, along with a decrease in pain perception

63 We Regulate Our Emotional States Thought suppression and rumination When we suppress negative thoughts, we are trying not to feel or respond to the emotion at all Rebound effect Rumination involves thinking about, elaborating, and focusing on undesired thoughts or feelings

64 We Regulate Our Emotional States Distraction Distraction involves doing or thinking about something other than the troubling activity or thought

65 Section 9.4 How Do Emotions Help Us Adapt?

66 9.4 How Do Emotions Help Us Adapt?

67 Facial Expressions Communicate Emotion In his 1872 book, Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals, Charles Darwin argued that expressive aspects of emotion are adaptive because they communicate how we are feeling

68 Facial Expressions Communicate Eyes and mouth Emotion We convey emotional information by means of our eyes and mouth See figure 9.25 next slide

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70 Facial Expressions Communicate Emotion Facial expression across cultures Research has found general support for cross-cultural identification of some facial expressions Support is strongest for happiness and weakest for fear and disgust

71 Facial Expressions Communicate Emotion Facial expression of pride Researchers found that isolated populations with minimal Western contact accurately identify the physical signs of pride. These signs include a smiling face, raised arms, an expanded chest, and a pushed-out torso See figures 9.26a, 26b next slide

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73 Display Rules Differ Across Cultures and Between the Sexes Display rules Rules that are learned through socialization and that dictate what emotions are suitable in certain situations From culture to culture, display rules tend to be different for women and men

74 Emotions Serve Cognitive Functions Affect-as-information theory People use their current moods to make decisions, judgments, and appraisals, even if they do not know the sources of their moods

75 Emotions Serve Cognitive Decision making Functions Emotions influence our decision making in different ways. For example, anticipating how different choices might make us feel can serve as a guide in decision making

76 Emotions Serve Cognitive Functions Emotion affects judgments In a study, people in good moods rated their lives as satisfactory, whereas people in bad moods gave lower overall ratings

77 Emotions Strengthen Interpersonal Relations Twentieth-century psychologists paid little attention to interpersonal emotions. Guilt, embarrassment, and similar phenomena were associated with Freudian thinking and therefore not studied in mainstream psychological science

78 Emotions Strengthen Interpersonal Relations Guilt strengthens social bonds Guilt: A negative emotional state associated with anxiety, tension, and agitation Excessive feelings of guilt may have negative consequences There is evidence that socialization is more important than biology in determining specifically how children experience guilt

79 Emotions Strengthen Interpersonal Relations Embarrassment and blushing People feel embarrassed after violating a cultural norm, doing something clumsy, being teased, or experiencing a threat to their selfimage Blushing occurs most often when people believe others might view them negatively and communicates an understanding that some type of social awkwardness has occurred See figure 9.28 next slide

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