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2 Physiology Define: The study of how living organisms function Structure & function are important to understand function Why study: Curiosity. Better understand how humans function under normal conditions. Thus, modifications of pathological states back to a normal state might be possible.
3 Many of the physiological process are described by chemical and physical properties It is important to integrate these concepts with biology.
4 The physiology of an animal is well suited to the environment in which it has evolved. This is explained by the process of ADAPTATIONgradual change over many generations. Acclimatization is a change of an individual over its lifetime of biochemical or anatomical alterations Acclimation is like acclimatization but induced by experimentation.
5 Homeostasis- The tendency of an organism to regulate and maintain relative internal stability. Cannon coined this term 1929
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7 This mostly works by a feed back control. Such as by a negative feedback. Examples - Temp, ph, salinity within the body
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10 Chapter 2 Read over it for your own benefit Know August Krogh principle. - that there is an animal optimally suited to yield an answer of a physiological problem to be addressed
11 Chapter 3 Understanding of molecules and their function for physiological processes. Water- it is polar can be used to interact with other ions. It lets Na+Cl- dissolve in body fluids. This is needed for rapid transport of ions.
12 Acid: any substance that can donate a proton. Base: any substance that combines with a proton.
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16 FATS: 1. Lipids 2. Phospholipids for membranes 3. Waxes- water proof the surface of insects
17 LIPIDS Fats - triglyceride Biological Molecules
18 2. Phospholipids for membranes Saturated- each carbon has a single bond and is staurated with H Unsaturated- some carbons have a double bond and thus are not saturated with H.
19 Unsat Sat 1. Melting Pt.: Decreased increased 2. Metab: - easily converted to sterols (ie, Cholesterol). Need for cholesterol for steroid based hormone production. Fats are good as a energy store. 1. Little water needed. 2. Stored in adipose tissue. 3. High H & C with little O so one gets a good energy yield. (1 gram of fat=2 grams of carbohydrates)
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21 FATS: 1. Lipids 2. Phospholipids for membranes 3. Waxes- water proof the surface of insects
22 Carbohydrates I. Monosaccharides II. Disaccharides
23 I. Monosaccharides -Six carbon-- hexoses -five carbon-- pentoses
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25 The disaccharides are units of monosaccharides A. Polymers Plants starch -- Animals glycogen Little water needed for storage. So good energy for plants and animals. B. Cellulose C. Chitin (exoskeleton in insects/crustaceans)
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29 Proteins A lot in cells. ½ of the dry mass. Various structures. -Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
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32 Secondary Alpha helix
33 Secondary Beta- sheet
34 Secondary types - alpha helix: alpha-keratins for hair and wool - Beta sheets: (Harder) beta- Keratins for reptile scales and turtle shells
35 Tertiary
36 Quaternary- a couple of subunits coming together like Heme units. ie., Hemoglobin
37 Molecular chaperones Fold other proteins. Maintain their structure. To protect proteins from degradation and preserve the overall integrity of intracellular protein pool. Example HSP or stress proteins.
38 DNA & RNA DNA isolated in 1869 by Friedrich Miescher. White blood cells and fish sperm. DNA- genes RNA translating the coded DNA message.
39 DNA with mrna--- Transcription mrna to protein --- Translation A-T and C-G in DNA But A-U in RNA
40 Energy in Living cells Chemical Rxs taking place (types of tissues) Where within the cells? (organelles) Animals are like chemical machines. Different forms of Energy- ie., thermal and mechanical.
41 A measure of a systems energy that it can provide. ΔG = ΔH-TΔS ΔH is heat; ΔS is Entropy Is Gibbs free Energy If ΔG is neg then the Rx is spontaneous. Also hold for biochemical Rxs.
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51 Rx A+B C+D Reactants to Products Substrate goes to a Product S k P
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54 Then the Michaelis-Menton equation for a single enzyme Vo of initial rate varies but can be used for determining other factors. Key is when Vo = ½ Vmax Then; Vmax = Vmax [S] 2 Km + [S] will be Km=[S] So Km can be determined by a plot. In this kind of plot many values are needed for the curve. A linear plot is easier and more accurate.
55 1 = Km + 1 Vo Vm[S] Vmax
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61 Metabolic Rx in the body must be regulated. Not all or none Rxs for process like ATP (energy) Many Rx regulated by enzymes. They are proteins; they are made and broken down. These are amino acids so Temp, ph, and salts will have an effect on their function. Also the cell does not want to much excess protein around so make Enzymes as needed.
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63 Ex: The neurotransmitter/hormone: Norepinephrine can inhibit tyrosine hydroxylase which is an enzyme that makes Norepi.
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65 Energy within the cells used to drive the tissue- to organ- to system.
66 2 ATP 36 ATP (?) Total 38 ATP (?)
67 C 6 H 12 O O 2 = 6 CO H 2 O with O 2 metabolism
68 Inner membrane ETC and most ATP is produced
69 Figure 5.5
70 CO 2 + H + NAD + NADH
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73 TCA and ETC: Molecule ATP worth Total 4 NADH FADH GTP X2 TCA cycles =30 ATP Glycolysis: Gly Net ATP 2 32 Total 2 NADH in Gly (3 ATP/each) 6 38 Total But use 2 ATP for the transport into Mit -2 (1 ATP for each NADH) 36 ATP Grand total
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75 Endosymbiotic theory Lynn Margulis
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79 Anaerobic- Bacteria, some yeasts, some invertebrates can live in low O 2. Ex. Clostridium botulinum can not grow in O 2. Aerobic- require a supply of O 2. Some tissues like muscle can function anaerobically and build up an O 2 debt but pay back occurs. With O 2 the cells are 20 times more efficient to produce ATP.
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82 Homework problems
83 Competitive 1. Binds at active site 2. Increase [S] removes inhibition 3. Increase [I] more block till saturated (alter rate and Increase Km, without a change on Vmax) 4. Slope changes Non- Competitive 1. Dose not binds at active site 2. Increase [S] no effect 3. Increase [I] more block till saturated (no change on Km, but decrease Vmax) 4. Slope changes
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