3.1 Carbon is Central to the Living World
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1 BIOL 100 Ch Carbon is Central to the Living World Carbon Central element to life Most biological molecules are built on a carbon framework. Organic molecules Humans 18.5% Carbon
2 Why is Carbon Central to Life? Complexity of living things facilitated by carbon s linkage capacity Carbon has great bonding capacity due to its structure outer shell has four electrons Can form stable, covalent bonds Carbon Carbon Skeletons Length Branching Double Bonds Rings (abbreviated structures) Ethane Propane Length. Carbon skeletons vary in length. Butane Isobutane Branching. Skeletons may be unbranched or branched 1 Butene 2 Butene Double bonds. Skeletons may have double bonds, which can vary in locafon. Cyclohexane Benzene Rings. Skeletons may be arranged in rings. 3.2 Functional Groups
3 FuncFonal Groups Side chain molecules on carbon skeletons 5 major groups Confer special properties on organic (carbonbased) molecules. FuncFonal Groups Behave consistently from one organism to the next Five groups in the chemistry of life Hydroxyl Carbonyl Carboxyl Amino Phosphate All groups are polar FuncFonal Groups Also Carbonyl C double bonded to O At the end of the C skeleton it is an aldehyde Anywhere else and it is a ketone Table 3.1
4 FuncFonal Groups Affect bonding capacity electrical charge polarity 3.3 The Molecules of Life: Macromolecules Macromolecules Large molecules consisting of chains of small repeating molecules Monomers Small organic molecules that are linked into Polymers Polymerization
5 Macromolecules Dehydration Synthesis When monomers are linked together a H + and a OH - are removed from the polymer Anabolism Macromolecules Dehydration Synthesis When monomers are linked together a H + and a OH - are removed from the polymer Anabolism Energy Macromolecules Hydrolysis Occurs when you break a polymer and the monomers must have the H + and OH - replaced Catabolism
6 Macromolecules Hydrolysis Occurs when you break a polymer and the monomers must have the H + and OH - replaced Catabolism Energy Macromolecules 4 Major Classes Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids Carbohydrates Carbohydrates formed from the building blocks or monomers of simple sugars Structure such as glucose Can be small single sugars (monosaccharides) to large polymers (disaccharides and polysaccharides)
7 Carbohydrates Monosaccharides, especially glucose, are the main fuel for cellular work Monosaccharides have CHO in a 1:2:1 ratio (CH 2 O) n Glucose, Fructose - both C 6 H 12 O 6 Dissacharides formed when two monosaccharides join up (dehydration synthesis) Glucose + glucose = maltose Glucose + fructose = sucrose Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Glucose (an aldose) Fructose (a ketose) Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Structural formula Abbreviated structure Simplified structure
8 Complex Carbohydrates Polysaccharides are a few hundred to a few thousand linked monosaccharides Four polysaccharides are critical in the living world: starch glycogen cellulose chitin Four Complex Carbohydrates (a) (b) (c) (d) Potato Liver Algae Tick Starch Glycogen Cellulose Chitin Figure Lipids
9 Lipids Do not readily dissolve in water Hydrophobic Consist of mainly of C and H linked by a nonpolar covalent bond Lipids Monomers = glycerol + fatty acids (dehydration synthesis) Polymers = triglycerides Saturated versus Unsaturated Fats Saturated have single bonds (solid at room temp) Unsaturated have double bonds (liquid at room temp) The Triglyceride Tristearin glycerol fatty acids Figure 3.9
10 Glycerol Lipid Polymerization FaSy acid Lipids Fats Glyceride and fatty acid Phospholipids Cell membranes Contain phosphorous Hydrophilic head Polar Two fatty acids Hydrophobic tails Hydrophilic heads Hydrophobic tails Water Water Phospholipids (a) Phospholipid structure variable group phosphate group polar head nonpolar tails (b) Phospholipid orientation phospholipids oil (nonpolar) water (polar) like attracts like nonpolar hydrophobic tails (fatty acids) exposed to oil polar hydrophilic heads exposed to water Figure 3.14
11 Lipids Waxes Fatty acid and an alcohol Protection and water proofing Especially plants Steroids Carbons skeletons are ring shaped 3 six sided and 1 five sided Cholesterol is a precursor to many hormones Waxes Figure 3.15 (a) Four-ring steroid structure Steroids (b) Side chains make each steroid unique testosterone estrogen cholesterol Figure 3.12
12 3.5 Proteins Proteins Extremely diverse Monomers called amino acids (peptides) Polymers are proteins polypeptide Enzymes Improve efficiency of chemical reactions Communication Receptors Insulin Anchoring Structural Hair Nails Cartilage Amino acids (peptides) Just 20 different kinds Have an amino group on one side and a carboxyl group on the other Some are hydrophobic and some are hydrophilic Affects shape for folding Polypeptides Chain of amino acids Proteins Fold into working proteins Amino group Carboxyl group
13 Levels of Protein Structure 3 or 4 levels of protein structure Primary (1 ) amino acid sequence Secondary (2 ) Initial folding Alpha (α) helices Beta (β) sheets Linear strands Amino acids Primary structure Hydrogen bond Alpha helix Secondary structure Amino acids Pleated sheet Beginnings of a Protein The linkage of several amino acids... ala gln ile ala gln ile... produces a polypeptide chain like this: A typical protein would consist of hundreds of amino acids Figure 3.18 Protein Structure Tertiary (3 ) Globular combos of alpha helices and beta pleated sheets Fibrous mostly alpha helix (hair) PolypepFde (single subunit of transthyrefn) TerFary structure Quaternary (4 ) Combinations of polypeptides in their tertiary shapes TransthyreFn, with four idenfcal polypepfde subunits Quaternary structure
14 Primary structure Protein Structure Four Levels of Structure In Proteins (a) The primary structure of any protein is simply its sequence of amino acids. This sequence determines everything else about the protein s final shape. (b) Secondary structure Structural motifs, such as the corkscrew-like alpha helix, beta pleated sheets, and the less organized random coils are parts of many polypeptide beta pleated sheet chains, forming their secondary structure. (c) Tertiary structure These motifs may persist through a set of larger-scale turns that make up the tertiary structure of the molecule amino acid sequence alpha helix random coil folded polypeptide chain (d) Quaternary structure Several polypeptide chains may be linked together in a given protein, in this case hemoglobin, with their configuration forming its quaternary structure. two or more polypeptide chains Protein Shape Most proteins are globular but structural tend to be fibrous Shape of a protein determines function Specificity (lock and key) Denaturing Destruction of specific 3D shape Temperature, [salt], ph Lipoproteins Lipoproteins Combinations of lipids and proteins High-density and low-density lipoproteins HDLs and LDLs transport cholesterol in human beings important determinants of human heart disease
15 Glycoproteins Glycoproteins Combinations of carbohydrates and proteins Signal-receiving receptors found on cell surfaces 3.6 Nucleic Acids Polymers DNA and RNA Monomers Nucleotides Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G). Nucleotides Nucleic Acids Made up of a sugar, phosphate, and a nitrogenous base
16 NucleoFdes (a) Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA. Nucleotide nitrogenous DNA consists of two base strands of nucleotides sugar linked by hydrogen (deoxyribose) bonds phosphate group (b) A computer-generated model of DNA The outer rails of the double helix are composed of sugar and phosphate components of the molecule The rungs consist of bases hydrogenbonded together DNA double helix Figure 3.21 DNA Encodes all genetic information as genes Genes encode specific proteins Nucleic Acids Nucleotide sequence dictates amino acid sequence Differences between DNA and RNA DNA Deoxyribose sugar Base pairing = A - T, C - G Held together by hydrogen bonds Shape is a double helix of two polynucleotides Remains inside the nucleus only used for information storage Can be made of millions of base pairs Which includes thousands of genes
17 RNA Differences between DNA and RNA Has ribose sugar Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T) Base pairing = A & U, C & G Shape is a single stranded polynucleotide Brings information out of the nucleus and is involved in protein production
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