Social Psychology 18 CHAPTER OVERVIEW. SociaL Thinking (pp ) SociaL Influence (pp ) CHAPTER REVIEW

Transcription

1 Social Psychology 18 CHAPTER OVERVIEW Chapter 18 demonstrates powerful influences of social situations on behavior of individuals. Central to this topic research studies on attitudes actions, conformity, compliance, group cultural influences. The social principles that emerge help us to underst how individuals influenced by advertising, political cidates, various groups to which y belong. Although social influences powerful, it is important to remember significant role of individuals in choosing creating social situations that influence m. The chapter also discusses how people relate to one anor, from negative-developing prejudice, behaving aggressively, provoking conflictto positive-being attracted to people who nearby /or similar behaving altruistically. The chapter concludes with a discussion of techniques that have been shown to promote conflict resolution. Although re is some terminology for you to learn in this chapter, your primary task is to absorb findings of many research studies discussed. The chapter headings, which organize findings, should prove especially useful to you here. In addition, you might, for each main topic (conformity, group influence, aggression, etc.), ask yourself question, "What situational factors promote this phenomenon?" The research findings can n form basis for your answers NOTE: Answer guidelines for all Chapter 18 questions begin on page 481. CHAPTER REVIEW First, skim each section, noting headings boldface iterns. After you have read section, review each objective by answering fill-in essay-type questions that follow it. As you proceed, evaluate your perfonnance by consulting answers beginning on page 481. Do not continue with next section until you underst each ans'wer. If you need 'I to, review or reread section in textbook before continuing. SociaL Thinking (pp ) DaVId Myers at tlmes ~~7&~ms th;=;~ familiar to some readers If you do not know meanmg of any of followmg words, phrases, or expresslons In context m which y appear In text, refer to pages for an explanation typecast, tm t-tongued remark, freeloaders, st lip JOI, 'bramwa>hed"; chjcken--egg spiral, heartemng rmplzcatlon Objective 1: Describe three main focuses of social psychology. 1. Psychologists \-vho study how \OVe think about, influence, relate to one anor Objective 2: Contrast dispositional situational attributions, explain how fundamental attribution error can affect Ol.lr analyses of behavior. 2. Heider's ory of how we explain ors' behavior is ory According to this ory, we attribute behavior eir to an internal cause, which is a or to an exten1al cause, which is a Chapter 18 Sodal Psychology 3. Most people tend to (overestimate/underestimate) extent to which people's actions influenced by social situations because ir is focused on person. This tendency is. When explaining our own behavior, or that of someone we know well, this tendency is (stronger/weaker). When observers view world from ors' perspectives, attributions ( same/reversed). Give an example of practical consequences of attributions. Objective 3: Define attitude. 4. Feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose our responses Objective 4: Describe conditions under which attitudes can affect actions. List three conditions under which our attitudes do predict our actions. Give examples. Objective 5: Explain how foot-in--door phenomenon, role-playing, cognitive dissonance illustrate influence of actions on attitudes. 5. Many research studies demonstrate that our attitudes strongly influenced by our. One example of this is tendency for people who agree to a small request to comply later with a larger one. This is phenomenon. 6. When you follow social prescriptions for how you should act as, say, a college student, you adopting a 7. Taking on a set of behaviors, or acting in a certain way, generally (changes/does not change) people's attitudes. 8. According to ory, thoughts feelings change because people motivated to justify actions that would orwise seem hypocritical. This ory was proposed by 9. Dissonance ory prechcts that people induced (without coercion) to behave contrary to ir true attitudes will be motivated to reduce resulting by changing ir SociaL Influence (pp ) If you do not know meaning of any of following words, phrases, or expressions in context in which y appear in text, refer to pages for an explanation: "openminded"; draw slips from a hat; draw back; kindness obedience on a collision course; zapi devilish villains; tug-oj-war; waffles. Objective 6: Describe chameleon effect, give example of it. 1. The chameleon effect refers to our natural tendency to unconsciously ors' expressions, postures, voice tones. This helps us to feel what y feeling, referred to as Copycat violence is a serious example of effects of on behavior. 3. Sociologists have found that suicides sometimes increase following a suicide.

2 S!:ciallnfluence Chapter 18 Social Psychology Objective 7: Discuss Asch's experiments on conformity, distinguish between normative informational social influence. 4. The tenn that refers to tendency to adjust one's behavior to coincid'e with an assumed group stard is 5. The psychologist who first studied effects of group pressure on conformity is 6. In this study, when opinion of or group members was contradicted by objective evidence, subjects (were/were not) willing to confonn to group opinion. 7. One reason that people comply with social pressure is to gain approval or avoid rejection; this is Understood rules for accepted expected behavior social..".. 8. Anor reason people comply is that y have genuinely been influenced by what y have learned from ors; this type of influence is 9. In one experiment, Robert Baron colleagues found that people were m likely to conform to group's judgments when task was construed as (important/ unimportant) when it was (easy / difficult). 10. Conformity rates tend to be lower in (individualistic/collectivistic) cultures. Objective 8: Describe Milgram's experiments on obedience, outline conditions in which obedience was highest. 11. The classic social psychology studies of obedience were conducted by When ordered by experimenter to electrically shock "learner," majority of participants ( "teachers") in se studies (complied/refused). More recent studies have found that women's compliance rates in similar situations were (higher than/lower than/similar to) men's. List conditions under which obedience was highest in Milgram's studies, Objective 9: Explain how conformity obedience studies can help us LU1derst our susceptibility to social influence. 12. In getting people to administer increasingly larger shocks, Milgram was in effect applying teclmique. 13. The Asch Milgram studies demonstrate that strong influences can make people to falsehoods acts. orders to commit cruel Objective 10: Describe conditions in which presence of ors is likely to result in social facilitation, social loafing, Or dei~dividuation. 14. The tendency to perform a task better when or people present is. In general. people become aroused in presence of ors, arousal enhances correct response on a(n) (easy / difficult) task. Later research revealed that arousal strengns response that is most in a given situation. 15. Researchers have found that reactions of peo~ pie in crowded situations often (lessened/amplified). 16. Ingham found that people worked (harder/less hard) in a team tug-of-war than y had in an individual contest. This phenomenon has been 17. The feeling of anonymity loss of self-restraint that an individual may develop when in a group is Objective 11: Discuss how group interaction can facilitate group polarization groupthink. 18. Over time, initial differences between groups usually (increase/ decrease). 19. The enhancement of each group's prevailing tendency over time is Future research studies will reveal wher electronic discussions on also demonstrate this tendency. 20. Vvhen desire for group harmony overrides realistic thinking in individuals, phenomenon known as has occurred. Objective 12: Identify characteristic conunon to minority positions that sway majorities. 21. In considering power of social influence, we cannot overlook interaction of ( power of situation) ( power of individual). 22. The power of one or tw"o individuals to sway opinion of majority is 23. A minority opinion will have most success in swaying majority if it takes a stance that is (unswerving/flexible). Social Relations (pp ) If you do not know meaning of any of following words, phrases, or expressions in context in which y appear in text, refer to pages for an explanation: "horsing around"; with toss of a coin; Ferdin; she melts; an outlet for bottled-up impulses; diabolical images; familiarity breeds fondness; "beauty is only skin deep"; opposites retract; revved up; bysters tlims people away from path that leads to helping; blase; "sneaky," "smart-alecky stinkers"; down tension ladder to a safer rung. Objective 13: Identify three components of prejudice. 1. Prejudice is an ( usually ) altitude toward a group that involves overgeneralized beliefs known as 2. Like all altitudes, prejudice is a mixture of predispositions 3. Prejudice is a negative is a negative Objective 14: Contrast overt subtle fonns of prejudice, give examples of each. 4. Americans today express (less/ same/more) racial gender prejudice than y did 50 years ago. 5. Blatant forms of prejudice (have/have not) diminished. However, even people who deny holding prejudiced altitudes may carry negative about race or gender. 6. (Close-Up) Recent studies of prejudice indicate that it is often an Wlconscious, or, action. In one study, people who displayed most were quickest to perceive appnt threat in black faces. 7. (Close-Up) Today's biopsychosocial approach has stimulated neuroscience studies that have detected implicit prejudice in people's -musde responses in activation of ir brain's 8. Worldwide, (women/men) more likely to live in poverty, two-thirds of children without basic schooling (girls/boys). However, people tend to perceive women as being m, less than men.

3 Social Relations Ch"pter 18 Social Psychology Objective 15: Discuss social factors that contribute to prejudice. 9. For those with money, power, prestige, prej udice often serves as a means of social inequalities. 10. Discrimination increases prejudice through tendency of people to victims for ir plight. 11. TIuough our, we associated ourselves with certain groups. 12. Prejudice is also fostered by, a tendency to favor groups to which one belongs ing ors, or while exclud Objective 16: Explain how scapegoating illustrates emotional r.:omponent of prejudice. 13. Research studies also reveal that terror of fuc~ ing tends to heighten aggression toward people who threaten one's 14. That prejudice derives from attempts to blam.e ors for one's frustration is proposed by ory. 15. People who feel loved supported become more to of those who differ from m. Objective 17: Cite four ways that cognitive processes help create maintain prejudice. 16. Research suggests that prejudice may also derive from, process by which we attempt to simplify our world by classifying people into groups. One by-product of this process is illat people tend to similarity of those within a group. 17. Anor factor that fosters formation of group stereotypes prejudice is tendency to cases. from vivid or memorable 18. The belief that people get what y deserve-. that good rewarded a"d bad punished-is expressed in phenomenon. This phenomenon is based in part on, tendency to believe that one would have foreseen how something turned out. Objective 18: Explain how psychology's definition of aggression differs from everyday usage. 19. Aggressive behavior is defined by psychologists as Thus, psychologists (do/ do not) consider assertive salespeople to be aggressive. 20. Like or behaviors, aggression emerges from interaction of Objective 19: Describe three levels of biological influences on aggression. 21. Today, most psychologists (do/ do not) consider human aggression to be instinctive. 22. In humans, aggressiveness (varies/does not vary) greatly from culture to culture, era to era, person to person. 23. That re genetic influences on aggression can be shown by fact that many species of animals have been for aggressiveness. 24. Twin studies suggest that genes (do/do not) influence human aggression. One genetic marker of those who commit most violence is chromosome. Studies of violent criminals reveal diminished activity in brain's which play an important role in controlling 25. In humans animals, aggression is facilitated by systems, which in turn influenced by or substances in blood. 26. The aggressive behavior of animals can be manipulated by altering levels of hormone. When this level is (increased / decreased), aggressive tendencies reduced. 27. High levels of testosterone correlate with, low tolerance for. Among teenage boys adult men, high testosterone also correlates with,hard, aggressive responses to. With age, testosterone levels- aggressiveness (increase/decrease). Although testosterone heightens aggressiveness, aggression (increases / decreases) testosterone level. 28. One drug that unleashes aggressive responses to provocation is Objective 20: Outline four psychological triggers of aggression. 29. According to principle, inability to achieve a goal leads to anger, which may generate aggression. 30. Or aversive stimuli can provoke hostility, including 31. Aggressive behavior can be learned through, as shown by fact that people use aggression where y've found it pays, through ors. 32. Crime rates higher in countries in which re is a large disparity between those who those who. High violence rates also typical of cultures families in which re is minimal of 33. Once established, aggressive behavior patterns (difficult/not difficult) to change. However, programs have been successful in bringing down re-arrest rates of juvenile offenders. 34. Violence on television tends to people to cruelty m to respond aggressively when y provoked. 35. A woman's risk of rape is generally (greater/less) today than it was half a century ago. Most rapes (/ not) reported. 36. Increased sexual aggression has coincided with rise of video business, giving easier access to R- X-rated films. Comment on impression of women that pornography frequently conveys effects this impression has on attitudes behavior. Summarize findings of Zillmann Bryant study on effects of pornography on attitudes toward rape. 37. Experiments have shown that it is not eroticism but depictions that most directly affect men's acceptance performance of aggression against women. Such depictions may create to which people respond when y in new situations or uncertain how to act.

4 Social Relations Chapter 18 Social Psychology Objective 21: Discuss effects of violent video games on social attitudes behavior. 38. Kids who playa lot of violent video games see world as more, get into more, get worse 39. Research studies of impact of violent video games (confirm/disconfirm) idea that we feel better if we "blow of steam" by venting OUf emotions. This idea is Expressing anger breeds 40. Many factors contribute to aggression, including factors, such as an increase in testosterone; factors, such as frustration; 1 such as deindividuation. Objective 22: Explain how social traps mirrorimage perceptions fuel social conflict. 41. A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas is. This per~ ception can take place between individuals, 42. Two destructive social processes that contribute to conflict perceptions. 43. When "non-zero-sum game" is played, most people fall into social trap by mistrusting or player pursuing ir own. To prevent people from falling into social traps, psychologists exploring ways for people to operate for ir mutual betterment-through agreed-upon, through better, through of ir communal responsibilities. 44. The diabolical images people in conflict form of each or perceptions. Objective 23: Describe influence of proximity, physical attractiveness, similarity on interpersonal attraction. 45. A prerequisite for, perhaps most powerful predictor of, attraction is 46. When people repeatedly exposed to unfamiliar stimuli, ir liking of stimuli (increases! decreases). This phenomenon is effect. Robert Zajonc contends that this phenomenon was for our ancestors, for whom unfamiliar was often dangerous. One implication of this is that against those who culturally different may be a primitive, response., emotional 47. Our first impression of anor person is most influenced by person's 48. In a sentence, list several of characteristics that physically attractive people judged to possess: 49. A person's attractiveness (is/is not) strongly related to his or her selfesteem or happiness. Since 1970, number of women unhappy with ir appearance has (increased/decreased/ remained stable). 50. Cross-cultural research reveals that men judge women as more attractive if y have a appearance, whereas women judge men who appear as more attractive. 51. People also seem to prefer physical features that neir unusually. Average faces, which tend to be,,., judged to be more sexually attractive. 52. Relationships in which partners very similar to last. or (more/less) likely 53. Compd with strangers, friends couples more likely to be similar in tenns of Explain what a reward ory of attraction is how it can accow1t for three predictors of likingproximity, attractiveness, similarity. Objective 24: Describe effect of physical arousal on passionate love, identify two predictors of enduring companionate love. 54. Hatfield has distinguished two types of love: love love. 55. According to two-factor ory, emotions have hvo components: physical a label. 56. When college men were placed in an aroused state, ir feelings toward an attractive woman (were/were not) more positive than those of men who had not been aroused. 57. Companionate love is promoted by mutual sharing giving by both partners. Anor key ingredient of loving relationships is revealing of intimate aspects of ourselves through Objective 25: Define C/ltruism, give an example. 58. An unselfish regard for welf of ors is Give an example of altruism. Objective 26: Describe steps in decisionmaking process involved in byster intervention. 59. According to Darley Latane, people will help only if a three~stage decision-making process is completed: Bysters must first incident, n it as an emergency, finally ::=-,,, for helping. 60. When people who overheard a seizure victim calling for help thought ors were hearing same plea, y were (more/less) likely to go to his aid than when y thought no one else was aw of emergency. 61. In a series of staged accidents, Latane Darley found that a byster was (more/less) likely to help if or bysters Were present. This phenomenon has been Identify circumstances in which a person is most likely to offer help during an emergency. Objective 27: Explain altruistic behavior from perspective of social exchange ory social nonns. 62. The idea that social behavior aims to maximize rewards minimize costs is p:j:'oposed by ory. 63. One rule of social behavior tells us to return help to those who have helped us; this is norm.

5 64. Anor rule tells us to help those who need our help; this is norm. Objective 28: Discuss effective ways of encouraging peaceful cooperation reducing social conflict. 65. In most situati0ds, establishing contact between two conflicting groups (is/is not) sufficient to resolve conflict. 66. In Sherif's study, two conflicting groups of campers were able to resolve ir conflicts by working toger on projects in which y shd goals. Shd breed solidarity, as demonstrated by a surge in use of word in weeks after 9/ When conflicts arise, a third-party may facilitate communication promote understing. 68. Osgood has advanced a strategy of conciliation GRIT, which sts for in. The key to this method is each side's offering of a small gesture in order to increase mutual trust cooperation.