Lecturer: Dr. Benjamin Amponsah, Dept. of Psychology, UG, Legon Contact Information:

Transcription

1 WORKING MEMORY Lecturer: Dr. Benjamin Amponsah, Dept. of Psychology, UG, Legon Contact Information: College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/ /2017

2 Session Overview Several arguments levelled against the structures of sensory and short-term storages have convinced most researchers that the modal model may not be quite as useful as once thought. In this session we are going to consider the working memory model as an attempt to address the weaknesses in the modal or stage model. Slide 2

3 Session Objectives At the end of the session, the student will Understand the rationale for the formulation of the working memory model Be able to explain the characteristics of the working memory Be able to evaluate the working memory model in terms of its appropriateness and as a contemporary model in dealing with the weaknesses of the modal model Slide 3

4 Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: Topic One: Argument for working memory Topic Two : Baddeley s idea of working memory Topic Three: Components of the Working memory Topic Four: Working Memory and STM Slide 4

5 Reading List Ashcraft, M. H. (2006). Cognition (4 th edn.), London: Pearson Education Int. Galotti, K. M. (2004). Cognitive Psychology: In and out of the laboratory (3 rd Edn.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Hunt, R. R. & Ellis, H. C. (1999). Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology (6 th edn.), New York: McGraw-Hill. Willingham, D, B. (2001). Cognition: The thinking animal. NJ: Prentice-Hall. Slide 5

6 Topic One ARGUMENT FOR WORKING MEMORY Slide 6

7 The Working Memory Based on our review of the modal theory we may conclude that: there is little compelling reason to think of memory as occurring in stages. memory is determined by what is done to the information, not by where the information resides. Slide 7

8 The Working Memory - The fact that people code information acoustically or semantically does not necessarily mean that material is transferred from one location to another. Arguments like this have convinced most researchers that the stage model may not be quite as useful as once thought. However, the stage model has contributed to theory building by focusing upon short-term retention which clearly has characteristics that must be explained. How do we address the weaknesses in the modal model? Slide 8

9 Contents of Working Memory Awareness of the contents of memory. We are usually aware of conscious or immediate experiences. Certain events occupy our thought process at any given moment, but at the same time many other facts are also known but not thought about. This distinction reflects active and inactive memories. Historically, active memory has been ascribed to STM and inactive memory to LTM memory. Slide 9

10 Limitation on Retention Limitation on retention of recent experiences. Even if there is no convincing evidence of the different principles of forgetting, the limitations on short-term retention are real enough as evidenced by both experimental work and everyday life experiences. We then need to explain how to handle short term retention. Slide 10

11 Topic Two BADDELEY S IDEA OF WORKING MEMORY Slide 11

12 Baddeley s Concept of Working Memory In the absence of STM, how do we account for the basic facts of active and inactive memories? Alan Baddeley has pushed an idea to meet these needs. Starting with Baddeley and Hitch s (1974) paper, Baddeley has developed the concept of Working Memory (Baddeley, 1986, 1990, 1993). Slide 12

13 Definitional Issues Definition of Working Memory Working memory refers to the processing of recent events and also to the operations and computations based on information from the long-term memory. For example, when you are multiplying 25 x 35 in your head, you must retrieve rules of multiplication from your LTM, perform the computations and store the answer. Whilst carrying on with the operations, partial sums must be retained until the final solution is reached. Slide 13

14 Definitional Issues Working memory describes the active processes involved in retention such as rehearsal, chunking, elaboration etc. In some respects, working memory shares some of the characteristics of STM. Like STM, working memory is assumed to be limited-capacity system containing transient information. Slide 14

15 Definitional Issues But unlike STM, the function of working memory is a matter of being a storage way-station to LTM than of holding information used for other cognitive work. The assumption is that working memory is a critical part of many important activities such as problem solving, reasoning and comprehension. These analyses are consistent with the view of memory as a single processing system with retention determined by the amount of processing resources devoted to any material. Slide 15

16 Working Memory Model Working Memory Model Baddeley, 1990 Slide 16

17 Topic Three COMPONENTS OF WORKING MEMORY Slide 17

18 Central Executive Central Executive The central Executive component is assumed to be a limitedcapacity attentional system that controls the phonological loop, episodic buffer and visuo-spatial sketch pad and relates them to long-term memory. The executive is considered more complex than any of the three slave systems. It is responsible for directing the flow of information, choosing which information will be operated on when and how. It is assumed to have limited amount of resources and capacity to carry out its tasks. Slide 18

19 Phonological Loop Some of its capacity can be used to store information. It is thought to function more as an attentional system (allocating cognitive resources to various tasks) than a memory store. It also coordinates information coming from the current environment with the retrieval of information about the past, to allow people to use this information to select options or form strategies. The other three components are concerned with the storage and temporary maintenance of information. The Phonological Loop It holds information in a phonological (speech-based) form. It has two parts: phonological store and articulatory rehearsal system. Slide 19

20 Phonological Loop Short-term phonological loop stores auditory memory traces (Acoustic) that are subject to rapid decay. The Articulatory rehearsal component can revive the memory trace (i.e., through rehearsal). It is involved in processing sub-vocal speech (speaking to oneself) or rehearsing in the head. In general, the loop may play a role in the acquisition of vocabulary which is vital for learning second language. Slide 20

21 Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad It is used to hold information about what we see. It is also used to temporarily store and manipulate spatial and visual information. For example, remembering shapes, colours, location and speed of objects in space. It is also critical in planning spatial movements (e.g., finding one s way in a complex building or within the environment). It is principally represented within the right hemisphere of the brain. Episodic Buffer The episodic buffer is assumed to be capable of storing information in a multi-dimensional code. It provides a temporary interface between the two slave systems (the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad) and LTM. This was added 25 years after the original model was published. Slide 21

22 Topic Four WORKING MEMORY AND STM COMPARED Slide 22

23 Comparing STM and Working Memory As an alternative to short-term memory, working memory does not propose separate principles for memory. All retention is determined by the amount and type of processing devoted to the material. New events require extensive processing and as extensive processing produces awareness, we are likely to be conscious of memory for recent events. Slide 23

24 Comparing STM and Working Memory Since processing capacity is limited, a limitation is imposed on the amount of new information which can be retained. The concept of working memory therefore deals effectively with the basic facts of retention of immediate experiences and is compatible with the general view that retention is a function of processing. Slide 24

25 Sample Questions Examine the argument for the importance of working memory. Examine the argument that retention is a function of type of processing done to the material and not where the information located. Discuss the functions of the following concepts: Central Executive Phonological loop Visuo-spatial sketch pad Slide 25

26 References Best, J. B. (1995). Cognitive Psychology (4 th Edn.). MN. West Publishing Company Baddeley, A. D. (1990). Human memory: Theory and practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Hunt, R. R. & Ellis, H. C. (1999). Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology (6 th edn.), New York: McGraw-Hill. Slide 26