Digestion of Carbohydrates. BCH 340 Lecture 2
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1 Digestion of Carbohydrates BCH 340 Lecture 2
2 Carbohydrates are called carbohydrates because they are essentially hydrates of carbon (i.e. they are composed of carbon and water and have a composition of (CH 2 O) n. The major nutritional role of carbohydrates is to provide energy and digestible carbohydrates provide 4 Kcal/g No single carbohydrate is essential, but carbohydrates do participate in many required functions in the body.
3 Monosaccharides o o Do not need hydrolysis before absorption Very little in most foods Di- and poly-saccharides o o o Relatively large molecules Must be hydrolyzed prior to absorption Hydrolyzed to monosaccharides Only monosaccharides can be absorbed
4 Three types of monosaccharides fructose glucose Galactose* * join together to make three types of disaccharides sucrose maltose lactose (fructose-glucose) (glucose-glucose) (glucosegalactose) * Galactose does not occur in foods singly but only as part of lactose
5 Mouth: o Digestion of CHO begins in the mouth o During mastication, salivary alpha amylase: Breaks starches down to maltose, dextrins, isomaltose, Optimum ph 6.7 Requires Cl- for its activity Plays only a small role in breakdown because of the short time food is in the mouth
6 o The chemical digestion of carbohydrates, which begins in the oral cavity, is terminated due to a decrease in ph CHO digestion stops in the stomach because the high acidity inactivates salivary alpha amylase
7 Pancreas o Further digestion by pancreatic enzymes occurs in the small intestine: when the acidic stomach contents reach the small intestine, they are neutralized by bicarbonate secreted by the pancreas o At alkaline ph pancreatic alpha amylase continues the starch digestion: Hydrolyzes alpha 1-4 linkages between glucose residues Major importance in hydrolyzing starch and glycogen to maltose Polysaccharides Amylase Disaccharides (maltose, isomaltose)
8 Small intestine o The final digestive processes occur at the small intestine and include the action of several disaccharidases. o Disaccharidases are secreted through and remain associated with the brush border of the intestinal mucosal cells. Disaccharides Brush Border Enzymes Monosaccharides
9 Small intestine Sucrose Sucrase Glucose + Fructose Maltose Maltase Glucose + Glucose Isomaltose Lactose Isomaltase Lactase Glucose + Glucose Glucose + Galactose
10 Monosaccharides, the end product of CHO digestion, enter the capillaries of the intestinal villi Distributed to tissue through circulation In liver, galactose and fructose are converted to glucose Monosaccharides travel the liver via the portal vein
11 Extra glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and skeletal muscles Insulin is not required for the uptake of glucose by the intestinal cells o Absorption of glucose= 100% (taken as standard) o Absorption of galactose = 110% o Absorption of fructose = 43% The maximal rate of glucose absorption from intestine is 120gm/hr
12
13 Transport of glucose into cells (Active transport) energy-requiring process that transports glucose against a concentration gradient. The energy is used by the sodium-potassium pump that requires the enzyme ATPase (Adenosine triphosphatase). carrier-mediated process in which the movement of glucose is coupled to the concentration gradient of Na+ Na+, is transported into the cell at the same time. Called: cotransport The carrier is a sodium-dependent glucose transporter or SGLT. Occurs in the epithelial cells of the intestine, renal tubules, and part of the blood brain barrier.
14 Glucose enter cells by two ways: 1- Insulin independent transport system: o o o Not require insulin for glucose uptake Mediated through carrier protein Present in brain, RBCs, hepatocytes, intestinal mucosa, renal tubules and cornea 2- Insulin-dependent transport system o o Require insulin: muscles and adipose tissue Insulin increases the number of glucose transporters in tissues containing insulin receptors
15 Passive transport (facilitated diffusion): Na+-independent facilitated diffusion transport This system is mediated by a family of 14 glucose transporters in cell membranes. They are designated GLUT-1 to GLUT-14 These transporters exist in the membrane in two conformational states Extra cellular glucose binds to the transporter, which then alters its conformation, transporting glucose across the cell membrane. The glucose transporters display a tissue-specific pattern of expression. For example, GLUT-3 is the primary glucose transporter in neurons.
16 Requires no energy since it goes with the gradient concentration (from highoutside the cell- to low) Glucose binds to receptor on carrier protein; Latter changes shape then releases solute on other side of membrane
17 Fructose and pentoses are absorbed by this mechanism. Glucose and galactose can also use the same transporter if the concentration gradient is favorable. Active transport is much more faster than passive transport. There is also sodium independent transporter (GLUT-2) that is facilitates transport of sugars out of the cell i.e. to circulation.
18 Summary of types of functions of most important glucose transporters: Function Site SGLT-1 Absorption of glucose by active transport (energy is used by Na + - K + pump) Intestine and renal tubules. GLUT -5 GLUT - 2 Fructose transport and to a lesser extent glucose and galactose. Transport glucose out of intestinal and renal cells circulation Intestine and sperm - Intestine and renal tubule - β cells of pancreas-liver
19 Fate of absorbed sugars Monosaccharides (glucose, galactose and fructose) resulting from carbohydrate digestion are absorbed and undergo the following: a- Uptake by tissues (liver): After absorption the liver takes up sugars, where galactose and fructose are converted into glucose. b- Glucose utilization by tissues: Glucose may undergo one of the following fate:
20 1. Oxidation: through Major pathways (glycolysis and Krebs' cycle) for production of energy. Hexose monophosphate pathway: for production of ribose, deoxyribose and NADPH + H + Uronic acid pathway: for production of glucuronic acid, which is used in detoxification and enters in the formation of mucopolysaccharide.
21 2. Storage: o As glycogen (glycogenesis) in the liver and muscles mainly. o As TG (lipogenesis) in adipose tissues 3. Conversion: to substances of biological importance: o Ribose, deoxyribose RNA and DNA. o Amino sugars o Non essential amino acids o Fatty acids o Fructose o Glucuronic acid o Galactose essential for formation of lactose, glycolipids, mucopolysaccharides
22 4. Excretion of glucose in urine o When blood glucose level exceeds certain limit, it will pass to urine o This will occur when blood glucose level is above 180mg/dl and this is known as glucosuria
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