Chapter 11: Theories of learning Learning activity suggested answers

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1 Lerning ctivity suggested nswers Lerning Activity 11.1 (p. 402) Prcticl ctivity on clssicl conditioning of n eye link Students nswers will vry depending upon the results otined. However: the UCS is the ir- puff the CS is the tpping sound the UCR is eye linking nd the CR is eye linking. Lerning Activity 11.2 (p. 404) 1 Wht oservtion led Pvlov to study clssicl conditioning? Oserving dogs slivting when they sw or herd the l technicin prepring their food (e.g. the dogs slivted when they herd the rttling sound of the spoon ginst the continer s the food ws eing prepred). 2 Define clssicl conditioning nd riefly descrie how it occurs, without referring to ny technicl terms. Exmples of definition: type of lerning tht occurs when response tht is utomticlly produced y one event ecomes ssocited with nother event tht would not normlly produce this response; type of lerning tht occurs through the ssocition of two events tht occur together on severl different occsions; type of lerning tht occurs through the repeted ssocition of two (or more) different events. Lerning is sid to hve occurred when response/ehviour is linked with n event (or oject) tht does not normlly produce this response nd the new/different event lone ctully produces the response. 3 In wht wy(s) did the restrint of the dogs in Pvlov s experiments help to control the potentil influence of extrneous vriles? Wys my refer to: control of presenttion of different stimuli, e.g. mount of met powder, frequency/constncy of intensity of visul nd uditory stimuli; Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

2 4 control of exposure to other stimuli tht my produce sliv; control of dogs responses, e.g. restricting rnge of possile movements nd other responses; precise oservtions/mesurements of the quntity nd rte of sliv produced. c d Define nd explin the role of ech of the different kinds of stimuli nd responses in clssicl conditioning: UCS, CS, CR, UCR. UCS (unconditioned stimulus): ny stimulus tht consistently produces prticulr, nturlly occurring, utomtic response/ UCR. CS (conditioned stimulus): the stimulus tht is neutrl t the strt of clssicl conditioning nd does not normlly produce the UCR (ut eventully ecomes ssocited with the UCS nd elicits the CR lone). CR (conditioned response): the lerned or cquired response to the CS. UCR (unconditioned response): the response tht occurs utomticlly s result of the UCS; (usully reflexive or involuntry response tht is predictly cused y UCS). Which of the stimuli is originlly neutrl stimulus? conditioned stimulus (CS). Why is it clled neutrl stimulus? Initilly (i.e. t the strt of the CC process) neutrl stimulus does not elicit/produce the UCR or CR when presented lone. Tht is, it is neutrl nd does not produce ny prticulr response. However, when used together with n UCS, the neutrl stimulus ecomes conditioned stimulus. Explin the reltionship etween the neutrl stimulus nd the conditioned stimulus in clssicl conditioning. The neutrl stimulus ecomes the CS fter repeted ssocitions with the UCS. The UCS utomticlly elicits the UCR nd y repetedly piring the UCS nd the neutrl stimulus, the neutrl stimulus ecomes conditioned (the CS) to elicit the response tht the UCS would hve produced (now clled the CR s it occurs in response to the CS). 5 At wht point in the process of clssicl conditioning cn it e sid tht response hs een lerned? When the CS lone produces the CR. 6 Drw nd lel digrm like figure 11.6, showing the elements in clssicl conditioning s they occur for the conditioned response to the sight or sound of the food continer demonstrted y the dog in figure Student exmple involving sound: Before conditioning sound of rttling cn is neutrl stimulus t this stge: no slivtion or irrelevnt response Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

3 Rttle! CHOW leds to UCS: dog food UCR: slivtion ROVER leds to During conditioning CS (sound of rttling cn) which ws originlly neutrl is ssocited/pired with the UCS (dog food) UCS: dog food UCR: slivtion Rttle! CHO W ROVER leds to After conditioning Slivtion hs now ecome CR to the sound of rttling cn (which ws originlly neutrl) CS: sound of rttling cn CR: slivtion Rttle! CHOW leds to The CR is very similr to the UCR. Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

4 Lerning Activity 11.3 (p. 405) Identifying elements of clssicl conditioning Identify the CS, UCS, CR nd UCR in ech of these three scenrios. Scenrio A UCS: cyclone UCR: fer CS: throom CR: fer Scenrio B UCS: plnes crshing into uildings UCR: nxiety CS: seeing or hering low- flying plne CR: nxiety Scenrio C UCS: electric shock UCR: hnd movement CS: uzzer CR: hnd movement Lerning Activity 11.4 (p. 408) 1 Explin the mening of the term cquisition in reltion to clssicl conditioning. Acquisition is the overll process during which n orgnism lerns to ssocite two events, the CS nd the UCS. c d Wht is eing cquired? Wht is eing cquired (lerned) is CR. More specificlly, the ility of the UCS (which ws originlly neutrl) to produce CR. How is this cquired? This is cquired through repeted presenttions of the CS nd UCS (close together in time) or y repetedly ssociting the CS nd the UCS (which occur close together in time). Descrie the reltionship etween timing nd cquisition. Timing is importnt in cquisition ecuse the CS nd UCS must e presented/pired close together in time (contiguous nd out hlf second mximum dely) in order for n orgnism to most efficiently form the ssocition etween the CS nd UCS or in order to mximise the speed with which the CR my e cquired. Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

5 2 3 Wht does extinction men in clssicl conditioning? Extinction is the grdul decrese in the strength or rte of CR tht occurs when the UCS is no longer presented (until pprent disppernce). When is extinction evident in clssicl conditioning? Extinction is evident in clssicl conditioning when CR does not occur following presenttion of the CS. Wht does spontneous recovery men in clssicl conditioning? Spontneous recovery is the reppernce of CR when the CS is presented fter the CR ppers to hve een extinguished. When is spontneous recovery evident in clssicl conditioning? Spontneous recovery is evident in clssicl conditioning when the CR reppers in response to the CS following extinction of the CR. 4 Wht is the key difference etween spontneous recovery nd extinction? Explin with reference to n exmple not used in the text. When spontneous recovery occurs, the CS suddenly produces reppernce of the CR; wheres when extinction occurs, the CS no longer produces the CR. Spontneous recovery involves sudden nd temporry increse in the strength of condition stimulus- response ssocition wheres extinction is grdul decrese in the strength or rte of conditioned stimulus- response ssocition. Discuss student exmples to clrify conceptul understnding. 5 Explin the mening of the terms stimulus discrimintion nd stimulus generlistion, in reltion to clssicl conditioning. Ensure you refer to n exmple from everydy life, ut not one used in the text. Stimulus discrimintion occurs when the orgnism responds to the CS only, ut not to ny stimulus similr to the CS i.e. distinguishing etween the CS nd stimulus like the CS (nd therefore not producing the CR for the like stimulus). Stimulus generlistion occurs when the orgnism responds with the CR (or like the CR) to stimulus like the CS. Discuss student exmples to clrify conceptul understnding. Lerning Activity 11.5 (pp. 409) Key terms in clssicl conditioning Select the five correct terms from the list elow to complete the sentences in ech of the following scenrios. 1 Elizeth s refusl to hndle red flowers is n exmple of stimulus generlistion. Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

6 2 The results in the tle show tht the dogs demonstrted stimulus discrimintion. 3 c In this experiment, Pet ws in the cquisition stge of clssicl conditioning. Elke mde sure this wouldn t hppen y presenting the pencil tp lone for some time until she ws sure tht the stge of extinction hd een chieved. This suggests tht spontneous recovery my hve occurred. Lerning Activity 11.6 (p. 410) Summrising key processes of clssicl conditioning Construct tle similr to the one elow to summrise the key processes of clssicl conditioning. Nme of process Description of process Exmple of process Key fctors influencing process cquisition the overll process during which n orgnism lerns to ssocite two events (the CS nd the UCS) n infnt is swddled (wrpped tightly in edclothes) whenever it is time to go to sleep: the infnt lerns to ssocite swddling nd going to sleep. timing of CS nd UCS presenttions influences how quickly the CR is cquired, i.e. very short period of out hlf second extinction the grdul decrese in the strength or rte of CR tht occurs when the UCS is no longer presented (until pprent disppernce of the CR) child stops plying with her toy crs fter eing tesed y her older rother whenever she plys with the crs extinction rte cn vry etween individuls for the sme CR nd for different CR types spontneous recovery the reppernce of CR when the CS is presented fter the CR ppers to hve een extinguished someone feels excited gin fter seeing n old oyfriend or girlfriend, even though yers hve pssed since lst seen (nd extinction hs occurred) does not lwys follow extinction nd often short- lived; when it does occur, the CR is weker thn when first cquired stimulus generlistion responding with the CR (or like the CR) to stimulus like the CS n infnt who cried when given n immunistion injection y doctor wering white cot ursts into ters in response to the greter the similrity etween stimuli, the greter the possiility tht generlistion will Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

7 phrmcist s white cot occur stimulus discrimintion responding to the CS only, ut not to ny stimulus similr to the CS n infnt who cried when given n immunistion injection y doctor wering white cot does not urst into ters in response to phrmcist s white cot the greter the similrity etween stimuli, the lesser the possiility tht stimulus discrimintion will occur Lerning Activity 11.7 (p. 412) 1 Explin why Pvlov ctully used the term conditioned reflex rther thn conditioned response. Wht might he hve clled the UCS? Explntion should refer to the involuntry, reflexive slivtion response of Pvlov s dogs. 2 Explin how clssicl conditioning my ccount for cquisition of the conditioned response referred to in ech of the following scenrios. c d A person under tretment for gmling ddiction often feels n urge to ply the pokies whenever he gin encounters cues such s driving pst gming venue where he experienced huge uzz fter hitting jckpot, nd hering out someone else s ig win on the mchines. The UCS is sights nd sounds of ig pokie win nd the UCR is huge uzz or euphori. Through clssicl conditioning, the sight nd sound of ig pokie win (UCS) ecome ssocited with the sight of gming venue (CS) nd the CS lone produces the CR of euphori. After swimming in the lke ner his home one dy, Glen emerged from the wter covered with slimy lood- sucking leeches ll over his ck nd legs. He ws revolted s he removed the leeches. Now, every time he psses the lke, Glen shudders in disgust. Leeches re the UCS nd the UCR is disgust. Through clssicl conditioning, the leeches (UCS) ecome ssocited with the lke (CS), nd the CS lone produces the CR of disgust. When Mrdi nd her sisters were toddlers, their mother frequently used their np time to vcuum. Now, when Mrdi nd her sisters her vcuum cleners, they feel sleepy. The UCS is sleepiness nd the UCR is sleep. Sleepiness (UCS) ecomes ssocited with the sound of vcuum clener (CS) nd the CS lone produces the CR of sleep. Every time three- yer- old Sienn herd the doorell ring, she rced to open the front door. On Hlloween night, Sienn nswered the doorell nd encountered scry monster tht intentionlly strtled her. Sienn scremed in fer nd rn wy. Now Sienn whimpers nd hides whenever the doorell rings. The UCS is monster nd the UCR is fer. Through clssicl conditioning, the doorell ringing (CS) ecomes ssocited with the presence of monster (UCS), nd the CS lone produces the CR of fer. Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

8 e A flshing light suddenly ppering on the control pnel triggers urst of drenline in n eroplne pilot. The flshing light hs previously een ssocited with n lrming event through clssicl conditioning. The UCS ws n lrming stimulus nd the UCR n drenline urst. Through clssicl conditioning, the flshing light (CS) ecomes ssocited with n lrming event (UCS) nd the CS lone produces the CR of n drenline urst. Lerning Activity 11.8 (p. 416) 1 Drw digrm like tht in figure 11.6 to illustrte the clssicl conditioning of Little Alert s fer response to the white rt. Exmple y student: Before conditioning Rt is neutrl stimulus t this stge No fer or irrelevnt response leds to USC: loud noise UCR: fer Wh! BANG! leds to During conditioning CS: rt (originlly the NS) is now ssocited with: UCS: loud noise UCR: fer leds to Wh! BANG! Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

9 After conditioning Fer hs now ecome CR to the presence of rt, which ws originlly neutrl. CS: rt CR: fer leds to Wh! 2 To which ojects did Alert demonstrte stimulus generlistion? ferful rections: white rit, dog nd selskin cot less ferful rections to: cotton wool lls nd Snt Clus msk 3 Consider Wtson nd Ryner s (1920) study from n ethicl perspective. To wht extent were ethicl principles for psychologicl reserch pplied in the Little Alert experiment? Explin with reference to oth ethicl guidelines nd procedures used y Wtson nd Ryner. Breches of ethicl guidelines include: prticipnt welleing, e.g. despite the experiment testing conditioned fer response, sujecting n infnt to procedure designed to induce severe nxiety nd distress nd to potentil long- term psychologicl hrm; not concluding the experiment when it ecme pprent the infnt ws experiencing severe nxiety nd distress; withdrwl rights, e.g. not informing the mother of the right to withdrw her infnt prior to or during the experiments (e.g. when Alert experienced distress), ut uncler whether or not this occurred; voluntry prticiption: ecuse she knew Wtson nd ecuse she ws n employee of the clinic where the experiments were conducted, the mother my hve felt oliged nd/or een pressured to permit Alert s prticiption, ut there is no evidence of either; deriefing, e.g. not tking steps to extinguish the fer response s soon s prcticle fter the experiments concluded; informed consent, ut uncler whether or not otined from prent so cnnot e legitimtely rised s rech. 4 Suggest n ethiclly cceptle procedure involving clssicl conditioning tht could e used to extinguish Alert s fer response to white furry ojects. You should present your nswer in digrm form nd indicte the CS, UCS, CR nd UCR. 1 See grduted exposure (pp ) nd systemtic desensitistion (pp ). See counter- conditioning in Box (pges ) The cse of Peter (1924) Exmple :it would e ethiclly cceptle to extinguish Little Alert s phoi using counter conditioning. In counter conditioning, the conditioned stimulus is pired with something plesnt (e.g., food, prise). Before extinction CS (white furry ojects) fer Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

10 2 3 During extinction CS (white furry ojects) is ssocited with positive feelings UCS (cuddles nd sweets) After extinction CS (white furry ojects) does not led to UCR (fer) CS (white furry ojects) CR (positive feelings) Lerning Activity 11.9 (p. 420) 1 Explin the mening of exposure therpy with reference to the key feture of grduted exposure nd tht of flooding. Exposure therpy is n umrell term tht refers to ehviourl therpies or tretment methods for mentl helth prolems involving CR of fer or nxiety (i.e. nxiety disorders). The therpy my require the client to grdully confront fer or nxiety inducing stimulus or successive pproximtions of the CS (i.e. grdul exposure), or to e immeditely rought into direct contct with the CS (i.e. flooding) until the CR is extinguished. 2 Define grduted exposure with reference to n exmple not used in the text. Grduted exposure is presenting successive pproximtions of the CS until the CS itself does not produce the CR, i.e. progressively or grdully introducing or exposing the client to incresingly similr stimuli tht produce the conditioned response requiring extinction nd ultimtely to the CS itself. Discuss student exmples to clrify conceptul understnding. Construct hierrchy of frightening situtions (such s tht for fer of flying in figure 11.15) for someone with one of the following fers: Exmples: Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

11 dogs heights swimming Intercting with n unleshed dog Riding in hot ir lloon Diving into the deep end nd swim Most frightening Being lone with n unleshed dog Riding Ferris wheel Applying simple swimming strokes in the deep end of the pool Ptting leshed dog Aseiling down wll Lerning simple swimming strokes in pool where you cn touch the ottom Allowing leshed dog to sniff your hnd Looking t the view from the rooftop of uilding Sumerging in pool Wlking pst dog tht is tied up Looking t view from lcony Floting in pool Looking t puppies through window Climing to the top of ldder Wlking down the stirs into pool Seeing n imge of dog Climing up few rungs of ldder Wtching others swim in pool Lest frightening (Note: when using systemtic desensitistion, fer hierrchies usully hve items.) Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

12 3 Define flooding with reference to n exmple not used in the text. Flooding is ringing the client into direct contct with the nxiety or fer producing stimulus nd keeping them in contct with it until the CR is extinguished. Discuss student exmples to clrify conceptul understnding. Give n exmple of how flooding might e used to eliminte conditioned response ssocited with your choice of fer for question 2(). Discuss student exmples to clrify conceptul understnding. 4 Distinguish etween imginl nd in vivo exposure. 5 Both involve the person eing exposed to their fered oject/sitution, however the method y which this is chieved differs. using imginl exposure, he person is exposed to their fered oject/sitution y using visul imgery (i.e. using their imgintion) wheres using in vivo exposure, the person is exposed to their fered oject/sitution in rel- life. Wht is version therpy? Aversion therpy is form of ehviour therpy tht pplies clssicl conditioning processes to inhiit ( lock ) or discourge undesirle ehviour y ssociting it with n versive (unplesnt) stimulus such s feeling of disgust, pin or nuse. Refer to figure nd drw digrm to illustrte the use of version therpy to tret someone with n ddiction to cigrette smoking or n over- the- counter mediction. Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

13 Cigrette smoking Over-the-counter leds to leds to 1. (UCS) Nuse producing drug leds to nuse (UCR). 1. (UCS) Nuse producing drug leds to nuse (UCR). leds to leds to 2. (UCS) Nuse producing drug dded to cigrettes (NS) leds to nuse (UCR). 2. (UCS) Nuse producing drug dded to overthe-counter mediction (NS) leds to nuse (UCR). leds to leds to 3. (CS) Cigrette, without nuse inducing drug, leds to nuse (CR). 3. (CS) Over-the-counter mediction, without nuse inducing drug, leds to nuse (CR). Key: = Cigrette smoking = Over- the- counter mediction = Nuse producing drug Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

14 c Wht re two limittions or criticisms of version therpy? 1 The effects of version therpy re not necessry permnent. For exmple, individuls who re ddicted to lcohol void lcohol when tking drug clled Antuse (which induces very unplesnt physicl symptoms shortly fter lcohol consumption), ut they return to drinking s soon s they stop tking the drug. So extinction my occur when the UCS nd CS re no longer repetedly pired. 2 The lerned version often fils to generlise to situtions other thn those under which the lerning took plce. This my e due to the conditioning eing dependent on cues tht indicte the versive stimulus will follow. Agin using the exmple of Antuse, people my experience the version only when they know tht the UCS (nuse- inducing drug) is going to coincide with lcohol consumption. Lerning Activity (p. 422) 1 Define tril nd error lerning. Tril nd error lerning is lerning y trying lterntive possiilities until the desired outcome hs een chieved 2 Give personl exmple of tril nd error lerning in everydy life. Discuss student exmples to clrify conceptul understnding. 3 Mrdi tries severl new routes to school nd eventully discovers the quickest, which she decides to use every dy. Explin Mrdi s ehviour nd discovery with reference to tril nd error lerning theory. Tril nd error lerning usully involves numer of ttempts (trils) nd numer of incorrect choices (errors) efore the desired outcome is chieved Mrdi hd numer of ttempts/trils (she tried severl routes) which resulted in numer of incorrect choices/errors (not getting to school quickly), efore finlly chieving the desired outcome (finding the quickest route to school) Mrdi did not find the quickest route to school on her first ttempt, therefore her ehviour ws typicl of tril nd error lerning. 4 Is lerning through mistkes suitle lterntive nme for tril nd error lerning? Explin your nswer. Yes, lerning through mistkes is suitle lterntive nme for tril nd error lerning ecuse mking mistkes is typiclly involved in tril nd error lerning. In tril nd error lerning, people usully mke numer of mistkes efore finlly chieving the desired outcome. For exmple, in order for n rchitect to come up with design solution, he or she is likely to mke numer of mistkes (i.e. generte numer of unsuccessful designs) efore finlly chieving the desired outcome. Similrly, it is not typiclly possile for someone to e le to ride icycle on their first ttempt (tril) t it nd they re likely to mke numer of mistkes (i.e. fll off, crsh) efore finlly eing le to chieve the desired outcome of the required lnce nd control. 5 Wht re two key differences etween clssicl conditioning nd tril nd error lerning? Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

15 In clssicl conditioning neutrl stimulus ecomes ssocited with n involuntry, reflexive response (such s slivtion or incresed hert rte), wheres in tril nd error lerning, no reflexive responses re involved. In clssicl conditioning the lerner is pssive wheres with tril nd error lerning the lerner ctive (motivted to chieve gol). Lerning Activity (p. 425) 1 Wht is opernt conditioning? type of lerning for which the likelihood of response or ehviour occurring is determined y its consequences n orgnism will tend to repet ehviour tht hs desirle consequence (or tht will enle it to void undesirle consequence) nd will tend not to repet ehviour tht hs n undesirle consequence i.e. it lerns to mke responses in order to otin or void certin consequences. 2 Why did Skinner dopt the term opernt conditioning rther thn instrumentl lerning? In your nswer, include definition of n opernt with reference to n exmple not used in the text. Skinner used the term opernt conditioning to emphsise the fct tht orgnisms lern to operte on the environment to produce desired or stisfying consequences; tht is, to mke response or set of responses (clled opernts) tht ct on the environment to produce some kind of effect/generte consequences. Exmple: ny response or ehviour of n orgnism tht is modifile y its consequences. 3 Wht is the min difference etween n ntecedent nd consequence in reltion to timing? An ntecedent occurs efore ehviour nd consequence occurs fter ehviour. 4 Briefly descrie the three- phse model of opernt conditioning. 5 The three- phse model of opernt conditioning hs three prts tht occur in specific sequence: 1 the discrimintive stimulus (SD) tht occurs efore prticulr response 2 the response (R) tht occurs due to the discrimintive stimulus 3 the consequence (C) to the response. This is usully expressed s stimulus (SD) response (R) consequence (C). Wht is discrimintive stimulus? The discrimintive stimulus (SD) is the stimulus (oject or event) tht precedes prticulr response, signls the prole consequence for the response nd therefore influences the occurrence of the response. In wht wy does discrimintive stimulus influence the occurrence of prticulr response? Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

16 In opernt conditioning, discrimintive stimulus sets the occsion for response to e elicitedwhen response is consistently followed y reinforcer in the presence of prticulr stimulus, tht stimulus comes to serve s signl indicting tht the response is likely to led to reinforcer Discrimintive stimuli re therefore cues tht influence the occurrence of prticulr response y indicting the prole consequences (reinforcement or non- reinforcement) of tht response For exmple, if you re prised for rising your hnd in clss nd sking n intelligent question, you re not likely to egin wlking down the street repetedly rising your hnd. You understnd tht rising your hnd is reinforced (rewrded) only in prticulr sitution i.e. the clssroom. Wht you relly lern is tht your clssroom is the discrimintive stimulus which signls you to elicit prticulr ehviour (rising your hnd), ecuse prticulr consequence is likely to follow (prise). Becuse rising your hnd is usully followed y positive consequence (prise) this will increse the likelihood of you rising your hnd in this sitution (the clssroom) in the future. 6 Sienn experienced the runner s high (due to endorphin relese) when she rn mini- mrthon nd s result hs strted running 10 kilometres three times week. Explin Sienn s chnged ehviour using the three- phse model of opernt conditioning. Stimulus (SD) Response (R) Consequence (C) Effect on future ehviour Running mini- mrthon Experiencing runner s high due to endorphin relese Sienn feels good, motivted Sienn increses her running she runs 10 km three times per week 7 Consider toddler Alex who is eing toilet trined y her prents using opernt conditioning. Her prents wit until fter Alex hs hd drink nd her ldder is full, then put her on potty set nd wit for nture to tke its course. When Alex urintes in the potty, her prents provide verl prise ( Wht good girl you re, Alex! ) or even some stickers tht she loves. She is lso punished when she hs wetting ccident y verl dispprovl ( Mommy is very disppointed in you, Alex. ). Grdully, Alex lerns enough ldder control to recognise when urintion is imminent, nd to withhold the response long enough for quick trip to the potty set thus otining rewrd nd voiding punishment. Eventully, the ehviour ecomes utomtic enough tht Alex continues to use the potty set. Explin Alex s successful toilet trining using the three- phse model of conditioning. Ensure you refer to ech component with reference to the relevnt spect(s) of Alex s toilet trining. Stimulus (SD) Response (R) Consequence (C) Effect on future ehviour full ldder urintion in potty prise or stickers positive reinforcement more likely to seek potty set when ldder is full full ldder wetting ccident prentl dispprovl punishment (positive) less likely to hve wetting ccident Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

17 Alex will lern tht (SD), urintion in potty (R) will result in the reinforcement of prentl prise or stickers (C) nd in other contexts, wetting ccident (R) will result in the punishment of prentl dispprovl (C). Lerning Activity (p. 427) 1 Briefly outline procedure for n experiment using Skinner ox to: operntly condition rt to produce prticulr response. Exmple: plce hungry rt in Skinner ox; the rt will eventully move round nd explore when the rt rndomly/ ccidentlly presses the lever (e.g. with pw, its nose), the food rewrd of pellet is delivered y the food delivery device delivery of food pellet is repeted whenever the lever is pressed until lever pressing occurs consistently Stimulus (lever in Skinner ox) Response (press lever) Consequence (food pellet/get food) (Note: Shping cn e used to minimise witing time e.g. wit until the rt hppens to wnder ner the food try, then drop in food pellet; the rt ets the food nd strts to lern the ssocition etween the try nd food; fter few trils the rt strts spending ll its time ner the food try; chnge response/ehviour requirement y witing until rt is djcent to the food try efore delivering food; once estlished, chnge response/ehviour requirement y delivering food only when the rt touches the food try etc.) operntly condition rt not to produce prticulr response. Exmple: plce hungry rt in Skinner ox; the rt will eventully move round nd explore when the rt rndomly/ ccidentlly presses the lever (e.g. with pw, its nose), mild electric shock is delivered through the electric grid on the floor repet shock delivery whenever the rt presses the lever nd the rt will e less likely to press the lever to void the unplesnt consequence. Stimulus (lever in Skinner ox) Response (press lever) Consequence (shock) 2 In Skinner s view, wht re the min driving forces ehind ehviour? Skinner elieved tht ll ehviour could e explined y the reltionships etween the ehviour, its ntecedents (the events tht come efore it) nd its consequences (the events tht follow it). Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

18 3 Any ehviour tht is followed y consequence will chnge in strength (ecome more, or less, estlished) nd frequency (occur more, or less, often) depending on the nture of tht consequence (rewrd or punishment). Identify the opertionlized IVs nd DVs in Skinner s (1938) experiment with the hungry rt outlined on pp IV: lever pressing DV: numer of lever presses Explin the rt s lerning through opernt conditioning using the three- phse model of conditioning. Stimulus (S) Opernt response (R) Consequence (C) Effect on future ehviour lever in Skinner ox press lever food pellet presented the hungry rt is more likely to press the lever gin (ecuse food presenttion is stisfying/desirle consequence) Lerning Activity (p. 430) 1 Define the term reinforcement with reference to n exmple. Reinforcement occufs when stimulus (oject or event) strengthens or increses the frequency or likelihood of response tht it follows. Use student exmples to clrify the conceptul distinction etween reinforcement (i.e. the process of providing reinforcer) nd reinforcer (i.e. the ctul stimulus). 2 Define the terms positive reinforcement nd negtive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement involves using positive stimulus to susequently strengthen or increse the frequency or likelihood of preceding response or opernt. Negtive reinforcement involves removing negtive stimulus to susequently strengthen or increse the frequency or likelihood of preceding response or opernt. 3 In wht wy re positive reinforcers nd rewrds similr nd in wht wy re they different? Similrities: oth led to the strengthening of response oth hve stisfying/desirle consequences oth dd something positive. Difference: rewrd suggests n outcome tht is positive, such s stisfction or plesure, ut stimulus is only reinforcer if it strengthens the preceding ehviour, regrdless of whether the orgnism experiences plesure or stisfction. Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

19 4 c Wht do positive nd negtive reinforcers hve in common in terms of their consequences? Common principles include: oth hve plesnt/stisfying/desired consequences, e.g. positive reinforcer involves presenttion of plesnt stimulus nd negtive reinforce involves removl of n unplesnt stimulus oth strengthen response or mke it more likely to recur. Identify three positive nd negtive reinforcers tht you hve oserved techers use in the clssroom nd three tht you hve oserved in other rel- life contexts. Discuss student exmples to clrify conceptul understnding. How re positive nd negtive reinforcers different? A positive reinforcer involves presenttion/delivery of plesnt stimulus (therey providing desired consequence) nd negtive reinforcer involves removl/voidnce of n unplesnt stimulus (therey providing desired consequence). Lerning Activity (p. 434) 1 Define the term punishment. Punishment is the delivery of n unplesnt consequence following response or the removl of plesnt consequence following response. Explin wht punishment involves nd why it is used, with reference to n exmple not given in the text. Punishment involves wekening response, or decresing the proility of tht response occurring gin over time. Exmple: until the 1960 or so, techers in Victorin schools were permitted to use corporl punishment (e.g. the strp ) to suppress or weken student ehviours such s inttentiveness, lteness, use of disrespectful expressions. 2 Distinguish etween positive nd negtive punishment with reference to n exmple not used in the text. positive punishment: the presenttion or introduction of stimulus to decrese (or weken) the likelihood of response occurring gin, e.g. principl Skinner requires Brt Simpson to write lines on the lckord: 'I will not wste chlk' negtive punishment: the removl of stimulus to decrese (or weken) the likelihood of response occurring gin, e.g. when principl Skinner sets detention for Brt Simpson fter school, he removes positive (free time) Note: positive punishment involves dding (like positive numer in Mths) nd negtive punishment involves sutrcting (like negtive numer in Mths). Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

20 3 Wht is response cost? Response cost is the removl of vlued stimulus to weken or prevent response, whether or not the stimulus cuses the ehviour Explin why it is form of negtive punishment with reference to n exmple not used in the text. Like negtive punishment, response cost involves tking something wy to weken ehviour. Exmple: memer of gym who hs not pid their fees is rred from ccess c Does response cost lwys involve something of monetry vlue? Explin with reference to n exmple. No. Response cost cn involve stimulus perceived s hving intrinsic or extrinsic vlue y the individul whose response is eing punished. In ddition, the stimulus tht is lost does not necessrily hve to cuse the response eing punished. For exmple, if prent confisctes gun for indiscriminte shooting when duck hunting, ecuse the gun is perceived s cusing the ehvior. This is response cost. Similrly, if the prent punishes y removing ny other vlued stimuls tht would not e perceived s cusing the ehvior 4 How does punishment differ from negtive reinforcement? Explin with reference to n exmple. Differences my refer to: Punishment hs the sme unplesnt qulity s negtive reinforcer, ut unlike negtive reinforcer, the punishment is given or pplied, wheres the negtive reinforcer involves removl of n versive stimulus. The outcome of punishment is the opposite to removl of negtive reinforcer punishment wekens the response, or decreses the proility of tht response occurring gin over time; wheres negtive reinforcement hs the effect of incresing the likelihood of response eing repeted nd therey strengthening the response. Punishment my either dd something negtive or remove something positive to crete n undesirle outcome to weken ehviour; wheres negtive reinforcement involves removl only. Exmple: Phillip conscientiously drives under the speed limit to void getting ticket (i.e. negtive reinforcement s the good or legl driving ehviour is mde to void n versive consequence). Phillip hs never exceed the speed limit for over two yers when he regined his licence following suspension of his licence for serious speeding offence (i.e. negtive punishment s tking wy his licence for period of time wekens susequent speeding ehviour) nd eing given ig fine (i.e. positive punishment s hs een dded to weken future speeding ehviour). 5 How does punishment differ from extinction? Explin with reference to n exmple. Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

21 Punishment is introduced (i.e. stimulus is dded or tken wy) to weken or suppress n undesirle response, wheres extinction involves removl or withholding of reinforcer tht mintins response. Exmple: toddler A hs stopped lowing ules in her milk ecuse she is no longer prised y her sister for doing so (extinction through withholding reinforcer), wheres toddler B hs stopped lowing ules in her milk ecuse she hs een reprimnded y her prents (i.e. punishment to suppress). 6 Descrie three key fctors involved in effective punishment. 7 8 Fctors include: order of presenttion, i.e. punishment needs to occur fter the response hs occurred, never efore timing, i.e. should e delivered immeditely fter the response hs occurred to help ensure the response nd unplesnt consequence re ssocited, without interference from other fctors during the time dely ppropriteness, i.e. punisher should ctully provide nd unplesnt consequence for the specific orgnism involved. Descrie sitution in which punisher might reinforce ehviour rther thn weken it or reduce its frequency. Exmple: A tlktive, ttention- strved Yer 8 student my respond to eing verlly reprimnded in clss his techer s intended punisher y incresing his tlktive ehviour. For him, the verl scolding t lest gives him the ttention he crves nd this ttention then cts s reinforcer for the tlktive ehviour. Descrie sitution where n effective punisher could reduce the incidence of ehviour recurring. Discuss student exmples to clrify conceptul understnding. Descrie three wys in which punishment my e used ineffectively. Ineffective wys my refer to: order of presenttion, i.e. delivered efore the response hs occurred (e.g. pet dog is scolded out digging up the grden efore eing llowed into the ckyrd) timing, i.e. delivered fter long dely (e.g. pet dog is scolded for digging up the grden when the owner discovers the dmge the next dy so the dog consequently cnnot estlish n ssocition etween the punisher nd the inpproprite ehviour) ppropriteness, i.e. punisher does not ctully provide n unplesnt consequence ( e.g. misehving child is sent to their edroom s punishment ut the room hs TV nd Fceook ccess) punishment is too intense, e.g. produces undesirle outcomes such s timidity, ggression, fer, nxiety, hostility Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

22 when concurrent reinforcement undermines the punishment, e.g. student who is reprimnded for clowning round in clss will withhold this ehviour much less if the ehviour is simultneously reinforced y pprovl from clssmtes; even if hoon driver is punished with sustntil fine, the effects of the punisher my e countercted y the reinforcement provided y the fun of honing when more desirle or lterntive response is uncler or unknown. Suggest prctices other thn punishment tht could e used y prent to del with child who persistently engges in one of the following ehviours: tesing, swering, keeping their edroom messy, eing lte home. As proposed y Skinner, punishment my temporrily suppress or decrese the occurrence of undesirle ehviour ut it does not promote more desirle or lterntive ehviour in its plce. Therefore, Skinner dvocted the greter use of positive reinforcement to strengthen desirle ehviours or to promote the lerning of lterntive ehviours to punishle ehviours. For instnce, y: reinforcing n lterntive ehviour tht is oth constructive nd incomptile with the undesirle ehviour, e.g. if deling with swering, reinforce use of lnguge other thn swering reinforcing the non- occurrence of the undesirle ehviour not reinforcing the undesirle ehviour, e.g. initite extinction y identifying then eliminting the reinforcer mintining the undesirle ehviour. Discuss student exmples to clrify conceptul understnding. 9 Wht ws Skinner s view on the use of punishment in everydy life? Skinner ws not n dvocte of punishment in everydy life t ll. Insted, Skinner dvocted the greter use of positive reinforcement to strengthen desirle ehviours or to promote the lerning of lterntive ehviours to punishle ehviours. Lerning Activity (p. 434) Reinforcement nd punishment Identify the opernt conditioning process tht is eing illustrted in ech of the following exmples. Choose from positive reinforcement (PR), negtive reinforcement (NR), positive punishment (PP) nd negtive punishment (NP). Write the initils of the correct responses in the spces provided. 1 When Lin turns the shopping trolley down the lolly isle, her two- yer- old son, Ali, strts screming, Wnt lollies! Lollies! Lin moves to nother isle, ut Ali continues to screm. As other customers egin string nd Lin strts to feel emrrssed, she finlly gives Ali g of M&Ms. Ali is now more likely to screm in supermrket when he wnts lollies ecuse he hs experienced PR - positive reinforcement. 2 If Lin is more likely to give in to Ali s temper tntrums in pulic situtions in the future, it is ecuse she hs experienced NR - negtive reinforcement. 3 Feeling sorry for n pprently homeless person sitting outside kery, Chris offers him $2 coin. The person snrls t Chris nd tries to gr his leg in thretening mnner. Chris no longer offers money to homeless people in the street ecuse of NP - negtive punishment. Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

23 4 Justin is cught using Fceook on his computer t work nd is reprimnded y his oss. Justin no longer ccesses Fceook on his work computer ecuse of PP - positive punishment. 5 As you wlk down the corridor etween clsses, you spot student whom you gretly dislike. You immeditely duck into n empty clssroom to void n unplesnt interction with them. Becuse NR - negtive reinforcement, hs occurred, you re more likely to tke evsive ction when you encounter people you dislike in the future. 6 Hving wtched Supermn fly in movie, three- yer- old Trn clims onto the kitchen tle, then lunches himself into the ir, only to fll onto the tiles nd hurt himself. Becuse Trn experienced PP - positive punishment, he tried this stunt only once. 7 Thinking she ws mking good impression in her new jo y showing how knowledgele she ws, Sn corrected her supervisor in two different meetings. Not long fter the second meeting, Sn ws retrenched ecuse the compny sid it ws mking her position redundnt. Becuse she experienced NP - negtive punishment, Sn no longer pulicly corrects her superiors. Lerning Activity (p. 435) Concept summry Copy the tle elow nd provide pproprite descriptions nd exmples to illustrte your understnding of the different concepts nd processes involved in reinforcement nd punishment. Concept Description Exmple positive reinforcement negtive reinforcement presenting stimulus tht provides stisfying consequence to strengthen or increse the frequency or likelihood of desired response(or opernt) removing n unplesnt or versive stimulus to strengthen or increse the frequency or likelihood of desired response (or opernt) Gild s mother gives her sticker for every helpful ction she performs in the kitchen, i.e. something is dded to strengthen desired ehviour tem leder tells Sm tht he no longer hs to do oring tsk ecuse of Sm s hrd work, i.e. something is sutrcted to strengthen desired ehviour positive punishment negtive punishment response cost presenting or introducing stimulus tht decreses (or wekens) the likelihood of response occurring gin removing stimulus nd therey decresing (or wekening) the likelihood of response occurring gin removing vlued stimulus, whether ot not it cuses response, to decrese (or weken) the likelihood of the response Tin is given dditionl chores for getting home lte, i.e. ddition of stimulus to weken Tin s prents tke wy her cr keys for when she gets second speeding fine dy fter the first fine, i.e. removl of stimulus to weken Tin s prents tke wy her cr keys for getting home lte, i.e. removl of vlued stimulus to weken ut the stimulus doesn t necessrily cuse or Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

24 occurring gin hve ny reltionship to the unwnted ehviour Lerning Activity (p. 438) 1 Wht does the term schedule of reinforcement refer to? 2 A schedule of reinforcement is progrm for giving reinforcement, specificlly the frequency nd mnner in which desired response is reinforced. c d Distinguish etween continuous nd prtil reinforcement with reference to relevnt exmple in lortory setting. Continuous reinforcement involves reinforcing every correct response fter it occurs, e.g. rt in Skinner ox receives food pellet every time it presses the lever with sufficient intensity. Prtil reinforcement involves reinforcing some correct responses ut not ll of them, e.g. rt in Skinner ox receives food pellet fter every three presses of the lever with sufficient intensity. Give two exmples of continuous nd prtil reinforcement in everydy life. Discuss student exmples to clrify conceptul understnding. Which is more effective in strengthening response once it hs een cquired: continuous or prtil reinforcement? Explin your nswer with reference to reserch findings. prtil reinforcement Skinner (1956) unintentionlly oserved tht responses mintined through progrm of prtil reinforcement re stronger nd more resistnt to extinction when he rn out of food pellets for his rts during n experiment nd ws forced to deliver reinforcement less often. It is now widely estlished tht responses mintined through progrm of prtil, or intermittent, reinforcement re stronger nd less likely to weken or cese thn those mintined y continuous reinforcement. When in the opernt conditioning process is it most dvntgeous to use continuous reinforcement? During the cquisition phse (when the desired response/ehviour is eing estlished). 3 Construct tle in which you summrise nd distinguish etween the four sic schedules of reinforcement. Include two exmples of ech schedule in your tle. Schedule of reinforcement fixed rtio Summry reinforcement fter predetermined set numer of correct responses Exmples loylty crd, e.g. free X fter every sixth X is purchsed; $10 for every 100 items of junk mil delivered Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

25 vrile rtio reinforcement fter n unpredictle numer of correct responses (ut involving constnt men numer of correct responses for delivery of s reinforcer) scrtchie lottery tickets river trout fishermn csts fly rod on verge out 65 times to ctch trout, ut only one predictle cst will e successful fixed intervl vrile intervl reinforcement fter predetermined time period hs elpsed since the previous reinforcer (provided the correct response hs een mde) reinforcement fter irregulr, unpredictle periods of time hve pssed (provided the correct response hs een mde) weekly py cheque student is llowed to wtch TV fter school only fter completing 90 minutes of study stying on hold when ringing service support child my cry for 10 seconds, 1 minute, or 5 minutes efore prent ttends, nd the crying only ceses when ttention is received 4 Wht re some possile effects of long dely in the presenttion of reinforcer? Effects my include: the reinforcer my not e ssocited with the desired response if the dely is fixed the desired response my tper off until the time ners when the reinforcer will e presented if the dely is vrile often results in low ut very stedy rte of responding n exceptionlly long dely (i.e. no reinforcer is offered) my result in extinction 5 At wht stge of the lerning process should reinforcer e presented to e most effective? Explin your nswer. An essentil feture of reinforcement is tht reinforcer must only e presented fter the desired or correct response is mde. This helps ensure the reinforcer is ssocited with the response nd the orgnism lerns the consequence of prticulr response. 6 How might the use of n inpproprite reinforcer ffect the lerning process? 7 For ny stimulus to e reinforcer, it must provide plesing or stisfying consequence for its recipient. If the consequence is inpproprite, i.e. not effective, it will not reinforce the ehviour nd dely or stll the lerning process. Explin, with reference to three phse model, how this sitution my hve developed. SD: wken in the middle of the night R: continul crying C: moved to prent s room Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

26 Toddler lerns tht wkening during the nighttime sleep (SD) nd continully crying (R) will result in reloction to the prent s ed (C). Descrie reinforcement strtegy the prent could use to chnge the unwnted ehviour of their toddler. Generlly, do not positively reinforce the child when they wken during the night y moving them into the prent s room. Insted, positively reinforce the toddler for sleeping in their own ed, ensuring consistency nd tht the reinforcer is pproprite to the individul child. Estlish the desired response using continuous reinforcement. 8 Refer to the lerning curves produced y four different schedules of reinforcement, s shown in figure Do the curves indicte continuous or prtil reinforcement? Explin your nswer. prtil reinforcement not every correct response is reinforced Which schedule of reinforcement is the most effective for the quickest cquisition of desired response nd which is lest effective? Explin ech nswer with reference to relevnt curves nd theory on the schedules. Fixed rtio is the most effective for cquiring desired response or for lerning new ehviour. Vrile rtio is est for mintining desired response or ehviour following cquisition. Vrile- intervl is lest effective for response cquisition. Rtio schedules generte high rtes of responding (i.e. steep slopes) ecuse the fster the orgnism responds, the sooner it erns the next reinforcer. Intervl schedules hve shllow slopes, ecuse reinforcement is limited y the scheduled time intervl etween reinforcements. fixed rtio: reinforcement is given fter specified numer of correct responses. Note tht in figure the responses re reltively stle etween reinforcements (due to the predictle nture of fixed- rtio reinforcement), with dely or puse fter ech reinforcer is delivered. Note lso the numer of responses shown is lrger thn those shown for ech of the intervl schedules vrile rtio: reinforcement is given fter vried numer of responses. Consequently, the numer of desired/correct responses required to receive reinforcer is suject to chnge. This unpredictle nture of vrile rtio lso produces fst/high nd stedy response rte, s shown in figure (In figure fixed rtio shows dely or puse fter the reinforcer is delivered nd vrile rtio shows hrdly ny dely or puse etween reinforcers (ecuse the next response under VR could produce nother reinforcer). Both of the puse trends re consistent with theoreticl expecttions under lortory conditions.) fixed intervl: the first desired or correct response fter pre- determined time period hs pssed is reinforced nd the time period required lwys remins the sme. Note the moderte rte of responding compred to rtio schedules. Note lso the sclloping effect produced y reinforcement, i.e. mrked drop- off in responding immeditely fter reinforcement vrile intervl: the first desired or correct response fter pre- determined time period hs pssed is reinforced. After the time period hs pssed, new time period Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

27 c (shorter or longer) is set. Consequently, the mount of time tht must elpse etween reinforcers vries. Note tht this schedule reduces the sclloping effect. Nor is there ny post- reinforcement puse under this schedule s the pigeon keeps pecking to find out whether new reinforcer is ville. Assuming the grph shows the lerning curves of four different pigeons reinforced for pecking responses, suggest which pigeon s ehviour will e most resistnt to extinction (cesstion or elimintion) nd which pigeon s ehviour will e lest resistnt. Explin ech nswer. Generlly, responses or ehviours conditioned on prtil schedules tend to e more resistnt to extinction thn re responses conditioned using continuous schedules (nd rtio schedules tend to e more resistnt thn intervl). When pigeons (or humns) hve experienced prtil reinforcement, they ve lerned tht despite intermittent delys nd non- reinforced responses reinforcement cn still occur, if the correct response is mde, so responding tends to e more persistent. Essentilly, it is hrder to detect the chnge from reinforcement to non- reinforcement (nd therefore lso commencement of the extinction procedure). most resistnt: vrile rtio schedule pigeon expects tht reinforcer will eventully e received so pecking ehviour is likely to e most persistent lest resistnt: fixed intervl schedule pecking ctivity increses s nticipted time for the delivery of reinforcement nd then flls into trough fter the dedline psses, ecuse the pigeon knows tht its pecking ehviour won t e reinforced gin with food until the next intervl elpses; the fixed intervl scllop grph provides evidence of predictility of reinforcement (nd therefore lso predictility of the commencement of the extinction procedure). Lerning Activity (p. 439) Identifying schedules of reinforcement Nme the schedule or reinforcement operting in ech of the following exmples. Exmple n uthor who tkes rek fter writing ech chpter of novel rdio sttion gives prize to the 13th telephone cller techer who checks on student every so often nd prises them for the work eing completed. netller who tkes rek every time she shoots ten gols consecutively slesperson who is pid retiner (se slry) plus commission for ech sle Schedule of reinforcement fixed rtio fixed rtio vrile intervl fixed rtio fixed rtio Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

28 Mormon who knocks on the doors of homes to tlk with the occupnts n ssemly- line worker who is pid for every crton of goods completed quiz- show contestnt who scores ten points for every correct nswer techer on yrd duty who checks the toilets every so often during lunchtime cfé who gives free cup of coffee fter every tenth purchse vrile rtio fixed rtio fixed rtio vrile intervl fixed rtio Lerning Activity (p ) 1 Define ech of the following terms in reltion to opernt conditioning nd give n exmple of their occurrence in () lortory experiment, nd () everydy life: Concept Definition Exmple in lortory experiment Exmple in everydy life cquisition the estlishment of response through reinforcement pigeon in Skinner ox receives food pellet every time it pecks disk, until the ehviour is estlished pet dog is given tret every time it sits on commnd, until the ehviour is estlished extinction the grdul decrese in the strength or rte of conditioned (lerned) response following consistent non- reinforcement of the response pigeon in Skinner ox is no longer reinforced whenever it pecks disk, so the ehviour wekens over time nd eventully ceses pet dog is no longer given tret every time it sits on commnd, so the ehviour wekens over time nd eventully ceses spontneous recovery the reppernce of conditioned (lerned) response in the sence of reinforcement fter period of time without reinforcement nd its pprent extinction pigeon tht ws trined six months previously to peck disk for food pellet reinforcer pecks the disk soon fter eing plced ck in Skinner ox, nd in the sence of the reinforcer pet dog tht ws trined six months previously to sit on commnd for tret, sits on hering the commnd for the first time following the owner s return from n overses trip, nd without the use of ny reinforcer Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

29 stimulus generlistion when the correct response is mde to nother stimulus tht is similr (ut not necessrily identicl) to the stimulus tht ws present when the conditioned response ws reinforced pigeon in Skinner ox pecks disk tht is different shpe from the one it ws conditioned to peck pet dog sits on the commnd of mit, which is similr- sounding to the stimulus conditioned through reinforcement stimulus discrimintion mking lerned response to specific stimulus ut not ny other similr stimulus pigeon in Skinner ox will only peck the round disk nd not disk of ny other shpe pet dog will only sit on the commnd of sit, nd not in response to ny similr- sounding words such s mit 2 Explin the role of discrimintive stimulus (SD) in stimulus discrimintion. In opernt conditioning, stimulus discrimintion occurs when n orgnism mkes the correct response to stimulus nd is reinforced, ut does not respond to ny other stimulus, even when stimuli re similr (ut not identicl) The orgnism discrimintes etween closely relted stimuli (tells them prt) nd responds (positively/correctly) only in the presence of tht stimulus The role of the discrimintive stimulus (SD) is therefore to cue or signl when (under wht circumstnces/setting) to respond nd elicit the correct ehviour For exmple, pigeon in Skinner ox could e tught to discriminte etween red nd green light. If the pigeon ws reinforced every time it pecked t disk while green light ws illuminted, ut never reinforced for pecking the disk when red light shone, it would soon lern to discriminte y responding only when the green light ws on. When this occurs, the green light hs ecome discrimintive stimulus (SD) s it signls the pigeon to elicit the correct response (pecking only when green light is illuminted). 3 Which of the following scenrios involve stimulus generlistion? Which involve stimulus discrimintion? c d Luren sks Gino out on dte ut he declines. Luren decides tht she won t sk nother oy out gin. Toul is pid for doing chores round the home nd expects to e pid for doing chores t her untie s plce when she stys there. Jckson is scred of the sound of lwnmower ut not the sound of n electric toothrush. Sm is scred of the sound of his dd s electric drill. When his dd stops using the drill he relxes. Sm s dd then reches for the electric sw. As soon s Sm sees this, he is scred nd runs inside. stimulus generlistion stimulus generlistion stimulus discrimintion stimulus generlistion Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

30 4 Mr Ying is young, hndsome Psychology techer who hs just een ppointed to girls college. Unfortuntely, his Psychology clss is so distrcted y his ppernce tht they find it difficult to focus on their work nd on his instructions. There is lot of giggling, whispering nd generl lck of ttention. Mr Ying is determined to mke good impression with his clssroom control nd with his teching methods. He decides to use detention s mens of pulling the girls ehviour into line. He runs lunchtime detention session for six girls whose ehviour hs een the worst. In the next clss, not only do these six girls misehve, ut they re joined t the next detention y four others. This trend continues until it s not long efore lmost the entire clss is on detention. c Which opernt conditioning process is Mr Ying trying to use to chnge the girls ehviour? Negtive punishment loss of lunchtime to weken inpproprite clssroom ehviour. Provide description of its effectiveness nd n explntion s to why this is so. It is ineffective due to concurrent use of negtive punishment (i.e. loss of lunchtime) nd positive reinforcement (i.e. Mr Ying s presence). How could Mr Ying chnge his strtegy with the girls nd still use opernt conditioning? Explntion my refer to: voiding concurrent reinforcement, e.g. detention is supervised y nother techer prctices other thn punishment e.g. ignoring inpproprite ehviour nd using positive reinforcement to promote nd strengthen pproprite ehviour. 5 Mri hd enjoyed ttending the sme P- 12 college for ten yers. Quite suddenly this yer, her friendship group hd drifted wy from her nd she is now eing ullied y some other girls ecuse she hs ecome loner. After n unsuccessful ttempt to solve her prolems y speking with her yer- level coordintor, Mri strted to tke dys off school, telling her mother she wsn t feeling well. Her senteeism incresed. Although she ws concerned out missing school, she couldn t fce the unplesnt ctions of the ullies. Which opernt conditioning process explins the increse in Mri s ehviour of deceiving her mother nd stying home from school? Explin how this process worked in Mri s sitution. negtive reinforcement y voiding the unplesnt school sitution or y removing the unplesnt stimulus, Mri feels etter nd therefore experiences stisfying consequence Which opernt conditioning process descries the consequence of the ullying ehviour for Mri? Explin its effect on Mri s ttendnce ehviour. punishment exposure to the unplesnt stimulus of ullying ehviour decresed Mri s school ttendnce ehviour Lerning Activity (p. 446) 1 Define the term shping. Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

31 2 c Shping is n opernt conditioning procedure in which reinforcer is given for ny response tht successively pproximtes nd ultimtely leds to the finl response or to the trget ehviour. Under wht circumstnces would shping e used to promote lerning? When the desired response hs low proility of occurring nturlly. Give n exmple of when you hve used shping to modify either person s or n niml s ehviour nd descrie the shping procedure used. Discuss student exmples to clrify conceptul understnding. Wht is token economy? Explin with reference to key opernt conditioning principles nd processes. A token economy is is setting in which n individul receives tokens (reinforcers) for desired ehviour nd these tokens cn then e collected nd exchnged for other reinforcers in the form of ctul or rel rewrds. Desirle ehviour is strengthened y positively reinforcing responses in wrding tokens. Undesirle ehviour is punished y removing tokens, using the principle of negtive punishment to weken unwnted responses. Under wht circumstnces might the use of token economy e ineffective? My e ineffective when: people feel mnipulted nd therefore refuse to cooperte when overly complex when indequtely controlled e.g. inconsistent ppliction of reinforcers nd punishers. Note: At Hogwrt s in Hrry Potter, wrding nd removl of house points t techer s discretion is used to reinforce good ehviour. It is shown to e powerful motivtor when the children re young. However, the system is not employed consistently, e.g. Slytherin msters lwys seem to penlise Gryffindor students. As result, the points system loses its potency, vlue nd relevnce, prticulrly s the students ge (nd the series) progresses. 3 Throughout his creer, Skinner proposed numerous pplictions of opernt conditioning. For exmple, during World Wr II, he developed the ide of Project Pigeon. This ws secret project in which he conditioned pigeons to guide missiles towrds n enemy trget. The irds were plced in the nose of missile, hrnessed in front of screen on which the moving imge of trget flshed. When the missile ws in flight, the pigeons would peck the moving imge, which produced corrective signls tht would keep the missile on course. The US Deprtment of Defense determined tht pigeons could ply n effective role, ut they were never used in ctul wrfre ecuse the development of electronic missile guidnce systems mde it unnecessry. Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

32 Suggest how shping my hve een used to trin the pigeon to e comfortle within the confines of missile nose nd to peck t the correct trget on screen to keep the missile on the required flight pth. See YouTue for 6min 19sec video yte (produced y n Americn third- yer psychology student) outlining the procedure Skinner used in developing Project Pigeon. Go to: Ygy75XXFM&feture=relted. Lerning Activity (p ) Applying opernt conditioning 1 Choose one of the exmples presented elow nd explin how opernt conditioning principles could e used for solution. Your explntion should use opernt conditioning terms where pproprite. Discuss student exmples to clrify conceptul understnding. 2 A techer cnnot conduct her lesson ecuse the students re rowdy nd inttentive in the lst period, so she lets them out erly. Wht re the students lerning? Which opernt conditioning principles re t work here? Students re lerning tht their rowdiness nd inttention or inpproprite clssroom ehviour results in the desirle consequence of eing let out of clss erly/erly dismissl. Students re more likely to ehve this wy the next time they encounter this techer s she hs positively reinforced their ehviour y giving them tret for misehving. The students hve negtively reinforced the techer s ehviour through removl of the versive stimulus of rowdiness nd inttention, i.e. when they leve the clssroom. 3 Anlyse nd descrie ech of the following scenrios in terms of the three phse model of opernt conditioning. You should lso indicte whether ech scenrio is n exmple of positive or negtive reinforcement or punishment. Zet s dog Belle keeps escping from the ckyrd y crwling through gp under the fence. Zet purchses smll detector tht she plces either side of the gp nd puts collr on Belle tht mkes high- pitched noise whenever she gets too close to the gp. The first time Belle tries to escpe under the gp, the noise plys nd distresses her. Soon Belle lerns to void the noise y stying inside the ckyrd. Discrimintive Stimulus: Response: crwling through the gp/escpe Consequence: high- pitched noise. Discrimintive Stimulus: gp under fence Response: sty in the ckyrd/not crwl through the gp/escpe Consequence: no noise. Positive punishment: the noise is dded to weken escpe ehviour. During close soccer mtch, n opponent tckles Jck roughly. Jck retlites y strting fight with the opponent. Jck s coch considers the ehviour uncceptle nd suspends him for one mtch, which lso mens Jck won t get pid for plying t time when he needs the money. When Jck next plys nd is gin tckled roughly, he rects y telling off the plyer nd complining to the referee, stopping short of strting nother fight. Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

33 Discrimintive Stimulus: rough tckle y opponent Response: strting fight with the opponent Consequence: suspension/plying privileges tken wy. Discrimintive Stimulus: rough tckle y opponent Response: verl reuke to opponent nd complint to referee Consequence: no suspension/loss of plying privileges. Negtive punishment/response: plying privileges re tken wy. Lerning Activity (p ) Dt nlysis The following two scenrios descrie eductionl settings in which opernt conditioning principles hve or could hve een pplied to chnge ehviour. Choose one of the scenrios nd nswer the questions out it. Scenrio 1: chnging techer s ehviour 1 Wht is the purpose of seline dt? Bseline dt is informtion gthered prior to the strt of n experiment/study t the end of the experiment/study, the dt is used to provide stndrd of comprison for determining nd compring how effective the experiment/study fred in chieving its gols its purpose is therefore to serve s sis for comprison for susequently collected dt. 2 Explin the difficulties experienced y the techer with reference to three opernt conditioning principles. Explntion my refer to: filure to positively reinforce pproprite or more desirle ehviour, e.g. 'he ws never oserved to tke notice of pproprite ehviour; for exmple give prise for not tlking'; filure to positively reinforce lterntive ehviour tht is oth constructive nd incomptile with the undesirle ehviour; ineffective punishment due to inconsistent ppliction, e.g. responded to inpproprite tlking out 25% of the time ; he continued trying to tech "over the top" ; ineffective punishment due to inppropriteness of punisher, i.e. punishers such s generl threts, shhh nd e quiet do not ctully provide n unplesnt consequence; ineffective punishment or potentil use of negtive reinforcement through filure to trget individuls, e.g. responses were directed t the whole clss nd rrely to offending individul students ; ineffective punishment due to inpproprite timing, e.g. not implemented with miniml dely. 3 Mke two suggestions involving opernt conditioning principles to help the techer overcome the difficulties with his clss. Suggestions my refer to: effective use of positive reinforcement to identify nd strengthen/increse frequency of pproprite ehviours, e.g. consistent ppliction of positive reinforcers such s prise, Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

34 smiling, compliments etc. s soon s possile fter desired responses re oserved, while consistently ignoring or punishing unwnted responses; effective use of negtive reinforcement, e.g. providing opportunity nd clrifying for voiding n unplesnt homework tsk if ccomplished during clss time; effective use of punishment; effective use of shping to modify ehviour of individuls; token economy prctices; principles outlined in the nswer to Lerning Activity question 8. Scenrio 2: chnging student s ehviour 1 Wht is the opertionlised independent vrile? Amount of techer prise given (lots versus none).. 2 On which dys ws the control condition conducted? Wht ws the purpose of this? Dys 1 4 to estlish seline dt; dys to check IV effect. 3 Identify the key elements of opernt conditioning evident in this scenrio. effective use of positive reinforcement, e.g. girl enjoyed techer prise ; consistently reinforcing desired responses nd consistently not reinforcing/ignoring unwnted responses Note: No informtion on negtive reinforcement, shping or punishment. 4 In which condition ws the young girl s interction with other children t its lowest? At its highest? Wht do these dt tell you out the success or filure of the progrm devised y the tem of psychologists nd undertken y the techers? dy 1 dy 24 nswers should propose cse for success of the progrm with reference to the dt in reltion to the progrm s gols. 5 Why did the techers stop using prise with the young girl for period of time nd then recommence its use? to check tht the ehviour modifiction ws ctully the result of their IV (selective techer prise dministrtion), e.g. y withholding the IV ( tretment ) nd mesuring prticipnt responses Lerning Activity (p. 451) Mtching exercise Mtch the clssicl nd opernt conditioning terms in the left- hnd column with the descriptions in the right- hnd column. The nswers re on pge opernt conditioning- h 2 discrimintive stimulus o Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

35 3 negtive punishment j 4 negtive reinforcement m 5 positive reinforcement k 6 fixed intervl reinforcement - i 7 opernt - l 8 token economy 9 vrile- rtio reinforcement f 10 stimulus discrimintion n 11 stimulus generlistion d 12 spontneous recovery c 13 extinction g 14 positive punishment 15 shping - e Lerning Activity (p. 452) Compring clssicl nd opernt conditioning Copy the tle elow nd complete ech row to summrise similrities nd differences etween clssicl nd opernt conditioning. Feture Clssicl conditioning Opernt conditioning process of cquisition extinction stimulus generlistion stimulus discrimintion lerning through repeted ssocition of the CS nd UCS grdul decrese in the strength or rte of CR when the UCS is no longer presented when similr stimuli produce the sme type of response i.e. the CR occurs for stimuli like the CS mking lerned response to specific stimulus ut not ny lerning through repeted ssocition of response nd its consequence; in the three- phse model, three- wy S- R- C ssocition grdul decrese in the strength or rte of conditioned/lerned response following its consistent non- reinforcement when the correct response is mde to nother stimulus tht is similr to the stimulus tht ws present when the conditioned response ws reinforced mking lerned response to specific stimulus ut not ny Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

36 spontneous recovery other similr stimulus i.e. CR occurs in the presence of the CS ut not in the presence of similr stimuli reppernce of CR when the CS is presented fter pprent extinction other similr stimulus reppernce of conditioned (lerned) response in the sence of reinforcement fter pprent extinction role of lerner pssive ctive timing of stimulus nd response nture of response (reflexive/voluntry) CR depends on UCS occurring first reflexive, involuntry reinforcement or punishment fter the response voluntry nd involuntry Lerning Activity (p. 452) Clssicl versus opernt conditioning Consider ech of the following scenrios nd stte whether the ehviour tht is descried is est explined y clssicl conditioning, opernt conditioning or comintion of oth these types of lerning. Give reson for ech nswer. 1 Slly cries whenever she hers rking dog. Prior to this eginning, Slly hd seen stry dog, reched out to pt it, nd the dog rked nd it her hnd. clssicl conditioning ssocited dog s rk (initilly neutrl, then CS) with dog ite (UCS), then CS lone results in crying (UCR à CR) 2 Hmish s ex- girlfriend lwys wore musk perfume. Hmish still cringes whenever he comes cross someone wering musk perfume. clssicl conditioning ssocited musk perfume (initilly neutrl, then CS) with unplesnt experience of ex- girlfriend (UCS), then CS lone results in cringing (UCR à CR) 3 A fther refuses to let his dughter orrow his cr fter she hs orrowed it previously nd returned it with ner empty petrol tnk. opernt conditioning S (fther s cr) à R (dughter orrows cr) à C (returns cr with ner empty petrol tnk) 4 Emili rrives home on time fter hving een grounded for eing home lte the lst time she went out with her friends. opernt conditioning Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

37 initilly: S (going out with friends) à R (home lte) à C (grounded) now: S (going out with friends) à R (home on time) à C (no grounding, i.e. negtive punishment) Lerning Activity (p. 455) 1 Define oservtionl lerning, with reference to n exmple. Oservtionl lerning occurs when someone uses oservtion of nother person s ctions nd the consequences of those ctions to guide their future ctions. Exmple: fter witnessing n older siling eing punished for tking iscuit without sking, the younger child does not tke iscuits without permission. 2 Why is oservtionl lerning lso referred to s modeling? Involves wtching model/s. 3 Wht re two key ssumptions of Bndur s socil lerning theory? the socil context in which lerning occurs provides rich source of ehvior nd ssocited consequences for oservtionl lerning lerning does not necessrily involve performing ctions nd experiencing consequences the lerning cn occur y wtching others do something nd experience the consequence people re more likely to model, lern nd reproduce responses oserved to hve desirle consequences oservtionl lerning cn involve conditioning e.g. vicrious conditioning oservtionl lerning involves crucil cognitive processes e.g. ttention, memory some models re perceived s more significnt or importnt thn others, nd therefore their ehviour is more likely to e imitted 4 Wht does vicrious conditioning involve when oserving model? During vicrious conditioning, the individul wtches nother person displying ehviour tht is either reinforced or punished, nd then susequently ehves in exctly the sme wy or in modified wy, or refrins from the ehviour s result of wht they hve oserved, i.e. no direct, personl experience is required oservtion is dequte. 5 Distinguish etween live model nd symolic model with reference to relevnt exmples. A live model is rel- life person who my e demonstrting, cting out nd/or descriing or explining ehvior e.g. prents, techer, tennis coch etc. A symolic model is rel or fictionl chrcter displying ehviour in ooks, movies, television progrms, online nd other medi e.g. rock str, comic ook chrcter. 6 Descrie three different responses you proly lerned through oservtionl lerning. Try to think of vriety of ehviours; for exmple, ctions, cognitions or emotions rnging from reltively simple to more complex. For ech response, wht model did you oserve, wht did you oserve, nd how similr were your responses to theirs? Students responses will vry. Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

38 7 Give two exmples of lerned ehviours tht re not cquired through oservtionl lerning. Explin your choice of exmples. Exmples should e of other forms of lerning, e.g. conditioned responses cquired through clssicl conditioning opernt conditioning or tril nd error lerning. Lerning Activity (p. 457) Evlution of reserch 1 Prepre flowchrt or written summry of the key fetures of Bndur s 1965 experiment. Include rief descriptions of: c d e f reserch hypothesis tht could hve een tested in the experiment the opertionlised IV(s) nd DV(s) the different conditions of the experiment the results conclusions ethicl concerns tht my e relevnt to the reserch. See flow- chrt overlef. 2 Nme the experimentl design used y Bndur. Suggest reson why this design ws used rther thn repeted mesures. Independent- groups design 3 Identify ny extrneous vrile tht my hve influenced the results in n unwnted wy. This is clssic study with relevnt vriles well- controlled e.g. similr- ged children rndomly ssigned to different conditions in equl numers of oys nd girls to control relevnt prticipnt vriles such s ge, pre- existing predisposition to ggression, gender, intelligence, culturl nd socio- economic ckground. The study cn e queried in reltion to rtificility, results not so cler- cut nd the possile short- term effects of oserving the ggressive cts. 4 Wht generlistions cn e mde to: other types of modelled ehviour? Bndur s generlistions to other types of modeled ehvior include: children lern through oservtion nd imittion oservtionl lerning cn occur y simply viewing model even if the model is neither reinforced nor punished oservtionl lerning cn occur without eing evident in immedite performnce following the lerning prticipnts of other ges? On the sis of this study nd its procedures, generlistions to from the results of children to older ge groups (e.g. dolescents, dults) out imittion of oserved ggressive ehvior re unlikely to e mde without testing the procedures with such ge groups. Mcmilln Eduction Austrli

39 Bndu s (1965) BoBo doll experiment Hypothesis: Young children exposed to n ggressive model eing rewrded for ggressive ehviour will perform more ggressive responses when given n opportunity to do sothn will young children exposed to n ggressive model who is punished nd young children exposed to n ggressive model who isnot rewrded or punished. ggressive ehviour. IV: model rewrded, model punished, model neither rewrded or punished DV: numer of ggressive responses y children in ech condition Note Other hypotheses could e stted e.g. sex differences, use of reinforcers for imitting. DV = mount of verl nd physicl ggression shown y the child Prticipnts ssigned to one of three conditions (in equl numers of oys nd girls) Condition 1: Wtch movie showing n ggressive, dult model eing rewrded Condition 2: Wtch movie showing n ggressive, dult model eing punished Condition 3 (Control): Wtch movie showing n ggressive, dult model neither rewrded nor punished Prticipnts plced individully in room nd oserved through two- wy mirror for imittions of modelled ehviour.. Some offered rewrd for imitting nd others not Results: children who wtched the ggressive model either eing reinforced or experiencing no consequences for their ggressive ehviour imitted ggressive ehviour more thn the children who wtched the ggressive model eing punished when children were offered rewrd for imitting the model s ggressive ehviour, even children who hd seen the model punished tended to imitte the model s ehviour the oys were more ggressive thn the girls in ll three conditions, ut the girls were nerly s ggressive s the oys if they were offered rewrd Mcmilln Eduction Austrli