CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Transcription

1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Why study mtivatin? learning abut mtivatin is an interesting thing t d (b/c it tells us wh we are, why we want what we want, and hw we can imprve ur lives) few tpics are mre useful t ur lives (b/c it helps freshadw life utcmes like quality f ur perfrmances and ur well being) MOTIVATIONAL SCIENCE the study f mtivatin and emtin is a behaviural science which means answers t mtivatinal questins require bjective, data-based. empirical evidence gained frm well-cnducted and peer-reviewed research findings instead f relying n persnal insights, research n mtivatin and emtin seeks t cnstruct theries abut hw mtivatinal prcesses wrk frm these theries hypthesis are generated and put frth t bjective empirical tests inadequate cncepts are best tssed aside, useful cncepts need t be made better, and new cncepts need t be discvered theries help mtivatin researchers understand cmplex phenmena they study, such as exercise mtivatin and behaviur, and theries allw fr generatin f testable hyptheses TWO PERENNICAL QUESTIONS study f mtivatin revlves n answering these fundamental questins: 1) What causes behaviur? 2) Why des behaviur vary in intensity? What Causes Behaviur? We see peple behave, but we cannt see the underlying cause that generated their behaviur the questin what causes behaviur? needs t be expanded t 5 specific questins Why des behaviur start? Once begun, why is behaviur sustained ver time? Why is behaviur directed tward sme gals yet away frm thers? Why des behaviur change its directin? Why des behaviur stp? what causes behaviur? can, therefre, be elabrated int the study f hw mtivatin affects behaviur s initiatin, persistence, change, gal directedness, and eventual terminatin in additin t behaviur, mtivatin als influences ur thughts, feelings, dreams and aspiratins perhaps the questin shuld be what causes activity nt nly behaviur, but als ur thughts, feelings and dreams? Why Des Behaviur Vary in its Intensity? Within the individual mtivatin varies when mtivatin varies, s des behaviur, as peple shw high r lw effrt and their persistence is strng r fragile a mtivatinal analysis f behaviur is t understand why a persn s behaviur varies in its intensity frm ne mment t the next, frm ne day t the next, and frm ne year t the next Between different peple, mtivatin varies

2 we all share many basic mtivatins and emtins (ie. hunger, anger), but peple d clearly differ in what mtivates them s anther mtivatinal prblem t slve is t recgnize that individuals differ in what mtivates them and t explain why ne persn shws intense behaviural engagement in a given situatin while anther des nt SUBJECT MATTER the pint f a mtivatin thery is t explain what gives behaviur its energy and its directin the study f mtivatin cncerns thse prcesses that give behaviur its energy and directin energy implies that behaviur has strength (intense and persistent) directin implies behaviur has purpse (aimed at achieving a gal) the pint f the thery is t explain what thse mtivatinal prcesses are and als hw they wrk t energize and direct a persn s behaviur the prcesses that energize and direct behaviur emanate frm frces in the individual and in the envirnment Mtives are internal prcesses (needs, cgnitins and emtins) that energize the individuals apprach and avidance tendencies External events are envirnmental, scial and cultural fferings that attract r repel the individual t engage r nt in a particular curse f actin Internal Mtives a mtive is an internal prcess that energizes and directs behaviur needs, cgnitins, and emtins are just three specific types f mtives needs are cnditins within the individual that are essential and necessary fr the maintenance f life and fr the nurturance f grwth and well being (ex. hunger and thirst bilgical needs), (ex. cmpetence and belngingness psychlgical needs) needs serve the rganism, and they d s by generating wants, desires, and striving that mtivate whatever behaviurs are necessary fr the maintenance f life and the prmtin f well-being and grwth cgnitins refer t mental events, such as thughts, beliefs, expectatins, and the self-cncept cgnitive surces f mtivatin revlve arund the persn s ways f thinking (ex. when students r athletes engage in a task they have in mind sme plan r gal, they gld beliefs abut their abilities, they harbur expectatins fr success and failure, they have ways f explaining their successes and failures, and they have an understanding f wh they are and wh they are striving t becme) emtins are shrt-lived subjective-physilgical-functinal-expressive phenmena that rchestrate hw we react adaptively t the imprtant events in ur lives emtins rganize and rchestrate fur interrelated aspects f experience: Feelings: subjective, verbal descriptins f emtinal experience Physilgical preparedness: hw ur bdy physically mbilizes itself t meet situatinal demands Functin: what specifically we want t accmplish at that mment Expressin: hw we cmmunicate ur emtinal experience publicly t thers by rchestrating these fur aspects f experience int a cherent pattern, emtins allw us t anticipate and t react adaptively t the imprtant events in ur lives

3 (ex. when we face a threat t ur well being we feel afraid ur heart rate increases, we have desire t escape, etc. thers can recgnize and respnd t ur experiences) External Events external events are envirnmental, scial, and cultural surces f mtivatin that have the capacity t energize and direct behaviur (ex. envirnmental surces f mtivatin, stimuli mney, r events being praised. general situatin/surrunding climate classrm climate) external incentives precede behaviur and functinally pull apprach behaviur ut f the persn r functinally push avidant behaviur ut f the persn (mney acts as an incentive fr energized behaviur, bad dur incentive fr avidance behaviur) EXPRESSIONS OF MOTIVATION Hw can yu tell the quality (r type) and the quantity (r amunt) f anther persn s mtivatin? Mtivatin is a private, unbservable, and seemingly mysterius experience Tw ways exist t infer mtivatin in anther persn: 1) bserve mtivatin s behaviural manifestatins (ex. t infer hunger watch if a persn eats mre quickly than thers, chews vigrusly, talks abut dinner during cnversatin, etc.) 2)pay clse attentin t the antecedents knwn t give rise t mtivatinal states (ex. smene didn t eat fr 72 hurs will be hungry) Mre ften than nt, mtivatin must be inferred frm its expressins via the persn s behaviur, engagement, physilgy, and self-reprt Behaviur Eight aspects f behaviur express the presence, intensity, and quality f mtivatin: attentin, effrt, latency, persistence, chice, prbability f respnse, facial expressins, and bdily gestures. (table 1.2 definitins) these 8 aspects f behaviur prvide the bserver with data t infer the presence and intensity f anther persn s mtivatin Engagement engagement refers t the behaviural intensity, emtinal quality, and persnal investment in anther persn s invlvement during an activity Fur interrelated aspects f engagement: Behaviural Engagement: attentin, effrt, persistence Emtinal Engagement: interest, Enjyment Cgnitive Engagement: strategies, self-regulatin Vice: self-expressin, participatin (ex. Brain Activatins and Physilgy as peple and animals prepare t engage in varius activities, brain sites becme activated and the nervus and endcrine systems manufacture and release varius chemical substances (i.e.

4 neurtransmitters, hrmnes) that prvide bilgical underpinnings f mtivatinal and emtinal states (table 1.3) t measure such neural and hrmnal changes, researchers use bld tests, salvia tests, psychphysilgical equipment, and machines that bserve neural activity in the brain (i.e. PET scan) Self-Reprt a furth way t cllect data t infer the presence, intensity and quality f mtivatin is t simply ask Peple can typically self-reprt their mtivatin, as in an interview r n a questinnaire Questinnaires have advantages and disadvantages: advantage: easy t administer, give t many peple at nce, can target specific inf disadvantage: 1) researchers lament the lack f crrespndence between what peple say they d and what they actually d 2) there is als a lack f crrespndence between hw peple say they feel and what their psychphysilgical activity indicates they prbably feel Because f such discrepancies, mtivatins researchers typically trust and rely n behaviural, engagement, and physilgical measures t a greater degree than they trust and rely n selfreprt measures THEMES IN THE STUDY OF MOTIVATION Mtivatin study als has a number f unifying themes that integrate these assumptins, hyptheses, theries, findings, and applicatins int a cherent field f study, including the fllwing: Mtivatin benefits adaptatin Mtives direct attentin and prepare actin Mtives vary ver time and influence the n ging stream f behaviur Types f mtivatins exist Mtivatin includes bth apprach and avidance tendencies Mtivatin study reveals what peple want T flurish, mtivatin needs supprtive cnditins There is nthing s practical as a gd thery Mtivatin Benefits Adaptatin circumstances cnstantly change, as d the envirnments we live in mtivatins and emtins prvide tremendus resurces that allw peple t adapt t these envirnmental changes ne theme that runs thrughut this bk is that mtivatins states (i.e. hungry, stress, mastery) prvide a key means fr individuals t cpe successfully with life s inevitable, changing, and smewhat unpredictable demands take away the mtivatinal states, and peple quickly lse a vital resurce they rely n t adapt and t maintain well-being peple with high-quality mtivatin adapt well and thrive; peple with mtivatinal deficits flunder Mtives Direct Attentin and Prepare Actin envirnments cnstantly demand ur attentin, and they d s in a multitude f ways Wh is t say whether ur attentin is allcated in ne directin r the ther

5 Mtives have a way f gaining, and smetimes demanding, ur attentin s that we attend t ne aspect f the envirnment rather than t anther mtives affect behaviur and prepare us fr actin by directing attentin t select sme behaviurs and curses f actin ver thers, table 1.4 (hw mtives influence behaviur) varius aspects f the envirnment a mtive typically arused by that envirnmental event a mtive-apprpriate curse f actin a hypthetical pririty given t each curse f actin as determined by the intensity f its assciated mtive mtives, therefre, influence behaviur by capturing attentin, interrupting what we are ding, distracting us frm ding ther things, and impsing a pririty nt ur thinking, feeling, and behaving Mtives Vary Over Time and Influence the Onging Stream f Behaviur Mtivatin is a dynamic prcess always changing, always rising and falling rather than a discrete event r static cnditin Stream f Behaviur and the Changes in the strength f its underlying mtive (fig. 1.4) a mtive strengths change ver time peple frever harbur a multitude f mtives f varius intensities, any ne f which might grab attentin and participate in the stream f behaviur, given the apprpriate circumstances mtives are nt smething a persn either des r des nt have, but instead, these mtives rise and fall as circumstances change Types f Mtivatins Exists as a unitary cnstruct, mtivatin can be nnexistent, lw, mderate, high, r very high in terms f hw much ne has ften n a team f hardwrking athletes, in a factry f hundreds f wrkers, and in a hspital full f dctrs peple d nt vary all that much in the level f their mtivatin, but, instead, in the type r quality f their mtivatin theries suggest that imprtant types f mtivatins exist (i.e. intrinsic mtivatin vs. extrinsic) r (mtivatin t apprach success different frm the mtivatin t avid failure) attending t the persns mtivatin is imprtant because sme types yield a higher quality f experience/perfrmance and prvide psychlgical healthier utcmes (ex. students mtivatin t apprach success utperfrms equally able students gal t avid failure) a cmplete mtivatinal analysis f behaviur answers bth questin hw much mtivatin? and what type f mtivatin? Mtivatin Includes bth Apprach and Avidance Tendencies Generally speaking, peple presuppse that t be mtivated is better than t be unmtivated and peple cnstantly seek hw t mtivate themselves and/r thers We welcme many apprach-riented mtivatin states (i.e. interest, hpe, jy, desire, achievement mtivatin, self-actualizatin) but sme are nt welcme (i.e. fear, frustratin) as they ready use t avid aversive, threatening, and anxiety-prvking situatins

6 mtivatins and emtinal states perate under the principle, the greater the irritatin, the greater the change t adapt ptimally, human beings have (and need) a mtivatinal repertire that features just as many aversive, avidance-based mtives as psitive, apprach-based mtives Mtivatin Study Reveals What Peple Want mtivatin reveals what we want literally the cntents f human nature (i.e. humans gd vs. bad, altruistic vs. egcentric, free t chse r determined by bi & sciety, etc) theries f mtivatin reveal what is cmmn within the striving f all human beings by identifying the cmmnalties amng peple frm different cultures, life experiences, ages, histrical perids, etc. all f us harbur physilgical needs, we all inherit bilgical dispsitins fr pleasure and aversin, we all share a small number f basic emtins, and we feel these emtins under the same cnditins, we are all hednist (apprach pleasure, avid pain) theries f mtivatin als reveal thse mtivatins that are learned thrugh experience and scial engineered thrugh cultural frces (hence, utside realm f human nature) (ex. thrugh unique experiences, awareness f cultural expectatin - we acquire different gals, values, attitudes, persnal aspiratins, a sense f self, etc) the study f mtivatin therefre infrms us what part f want and desire stem frm human nature but als what part f want and desire stem frm persnal, scial, and cultural learning (i.e. what s universal vs. cultural) T Flurish, Mtivatin Needs Supprtive Cnditins a persn s mtivatin cannt be separated frm the scial cntext in which it is embdied thse wh (i.e. athletes, students, children) are surrunded by scial cntexts that supprt and nurture their needs and strivings shw greater vitality, experience persnal grwth, and thrive mre than thse wh are surrunded by scial neglect and frustratin recgnizing the rle that scial cntexts play in peple s mtivatin and well-being, mtivatin researchers seek t apply principles f mtivatin in ways that allw peple s mtivatin t flurish (4 areas are stressed in this bk) Educatin an understanding f mtivatin can be applied t prmte students classrm engagement, t fster the mtivatin t learn and develp talent, t supprt the desire t stay in schl rather than drp ut, and t infrm teachers hw t prvide mtivatinally supprtive classrm climate Wrk an understanding f mtivatin can be applied t imprve wrker prductivity and satisfactin, t build cnfident and resilient beliefs, t keep stress at bay, and t structure jbs s that they ffer wrkers ptimal levels f challenge, cntrl, variety, and relatedness with their cwrkers Sprts and exercise an understanding f mtivatin can be applied t identify the reasns yuths participate in sprts, t design exercise prgrams that prmte lng-term adherence, and t predict the effects n perfrmance f factrs such as interpersnal cmpetitin, perfrmance feedback, and gal setting Therapy an understanding f mtivatin can be applied t imprve mental and emtinal wellbeing, t cultivate a sense f ptimism, t fster mature defence mechanisms, t

7 explain the paradx f why mental cntrl effrts ften backfire, and t appreciate the cntributin that quality f ne s interpersnal relatinships play in bth mtivatin and mental health nt all attempts t mtivate wrk it really is an art when peple adapt successfully and their mtivatinal states flurish peple feel jy, interest, ptimism but when peple are verwhelmed by their envirnment and their mtivatinal states flunder peple feel sad and helpless There is Nthing S Practical as a Gd Thery a surce t answer mtivatinal questins, ther than a cmmn sense analysis, recall persnal experience, r asking an expert, is a gd thery A thery is a set f variables (i.e. self-efficacy, gals, effrt) and the relatinship that are assumed t exist amng thse variables (i.e. strng self-efficacy beliefs encurage peple t set gals, and nce set, gals encurage high effrt) theries prvide a cnceptual framewrk fr interpreting behaviural bservatins, and they functin as intellectual bridges t link mtivatinal questins and prblems t satisfying answers and slutins table 1.5 intrduces 24 mtivatin theries that appear in the upcming chapters, they are listed fr tw reasns ne, the list intrduces the idea that heart and sul f mtivatinal analysis f behaviur is its theries secnd, the list f theries can serve as a means fr mnitring yur grwing familiarity with cntemprary mtivatin study (when yu knw mtivatin theries yu knw mtivatin) PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER: A FRAMEWORK TO UDNESTSAND THE STUDY OF MOTIVAITON read n p. 21 SUMMARY read n p. 22