Individual Differences

Transcription

1 Statistical Infrequency Defining Psychological Abnormality Failure to function adequately Deviation from social norms Deviation from ideal mental health Clinical Characteristics Individual Differences Biological Model Psychodynamic Model 1 2 Eating Disorders Anorexia and Bulimia Biological & Psychological models of abnormality Explanations Cognitive Model Behavioural Model 1

2 Objectives: Outline and evaluate the following definitions of abnormality: Statistical Infrequency Deviation from social norms Deviation from ideal mental health Failure to function adequately 2

3 Statistical infrequency Behaviours that are statistically rare or deviate from the average/statistical norm as illustrated by the normal distribution curve, are classed as abnormal. Any behaviour that is atypical of the majority would be statistically infrequent, and so abnormal. 3

4 Statistical Infrequency A very unusual behaviour will be more than 2 standard deviations from the mean 4

5 Deviation from social norms Behaviour that does not follow socially accepted patterns. These unwritten social rules are culturally relative and eradependent. 5

6 Deviation from Social Norms 6

7 Deviation from ideal mental health Deviation from optimal psychological wellbeing. Shown through a lack of positive self-attitudes, personal growth, integration, autonomy, environmental mastery, and resistance to stress. This prevents the individual self-actualising. 7

8 The factors that drive or motivate individuals, according to Maslow (1954) 8

9 Six elements for optimal living 1. Self-attitudes 2. Personal growth 3. Integration 4. Autonomy 5. Perception of reality 6. Environmental mastery Jahoda (1958) 9

10 Failure to function adequately A model of abnormality based on an inability to cope with day-to-day life caused by psychological distress or discomfort. There is an inability to fulfill Individual, Social and Organisational roles. 10

11 Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) suggested 7 features: 1. Suffering 2. Maladaptiveness 3. Vividness and unconventionality of behaviour 4. Unpredictability and loss of control 5. Irrationality and incomprehensibility 6. Observer Discomfort 7. Violation of moral and ideal standards. 11

12 All definitions are culturally relative. Normal Abnormal 12

13 Cultural relativism We cannot judge behaviour properly unless it is viewed in the context from which it originates, because different cultures have different norms of behaviour and so interpretations of behaviour may differ. Ethnocentrism is when only the perspective of one s own culture is taken. 13

14 Biological (Medical) Model mental disorders are similar to physical illnesses they have physical causes such as brain dysfunction, biochemical imbalance, infection, genetics. can be described in terms of clusters of symptoms which can be identified, leading to the diagnosis of an illness. diagnosis leads to appropriate medical treatments. diathesis stress is the new idea genes predisposition and environment interact. 14

15 Infection micro-organisms that cause disease eg Flu in schizophrenia 15

16 Genetic Factors inherited predispositions to certain illnesses twin studies look for concordance in a twin study looking at schizophrenia found: MZ = 48% DZ =17% 16

17 Biochemistry Inbalance of neurotransmitters eg not enough serotonin or nor-adrenaline in depression. 17

18 Biochemistry 18

19 Neuroanatomy Structural abnormality or brain damage 19

20 Reductionism However this theory can be said to be reductionist because it reduces behaviour down to one factor. For example This is a problem because the cause of the behaviour may not be this simplistic, there is evidence that other factors such as.. may also be involved.

21 Determinism However this theory is determinist because it suggests that behaviour has a root cause and we do not have free will to choose our behaviour. In this case behaviour is determined by. This is a problem because there may be a variety of causes creating the behaviour. There is evidence that other factors such as.. may also be involved.

22 Nature Nurture However this theory can be said to fall within the. side of the nature nurture debate. This is because.. This is a problem because there is evidence that factors from the other side of the debate. are also involved, such as.., meaning that in reality the explanation is interactionist.

23 Psychodynamic Model - Assumptions Conflict between the id, ego, and superego. 23

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25 Psychodynamic Model - Assumptions Psychosexual Development Stage Description Picture Oral 0-2 Anal 2-4 Phallic 4-7 Latency 7- puberty Genital puberty - marriage Mouth source of pleasure Withholding or expelling faeces Genitals I m a boy!! Same sex friendships learning to be a girl/boy Genitals sexual expression 25

26 Psychodynamic Model - Assumptions Fixation at psychosexual stages due to conflict. 26

27 Oedipus Complex I want to marry my Mum I can t because Dad will be cross He might chop off my penis (castration anxiety) I d better do as he says I ll be like Dad and then Mum will love me Copy Dad s behaviour (anaclictic identification) 27

28 Electra Complex I want to marry my Dad I can t because Mum has married Dad and he loves her because she has had me I haven t got a penis (penis envy) Mum hasn t either Dad loves Mum because she is a mother and cares for us If I act like a mother Dad will love me I ll copy Mum (anaclictic identification) 28

29 Defence mechanisms that help control conflict. Psychodynamic Model - Assumptions 29

30 Behavioural Model Assumptions Based on principles of learning. All behaviour is learned through association (classical conditioning) reinforcement (operant conditioning) or social learning. Abnormality is caused by learning maladaptive behaviours. What was learned can be unlearned, using the same principles. The same laws apply to human and non-human animal behaviour. 30

31 Behavioural Model 31

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35 Classical Conditioning of Fear A fear of dogs may be learned in the following way: Child is bitten by dog; pain fear Dog is paired with pain Eventually Dog fear 35

36 Operant Conditioning of Fear A fear of dogs may be continued in the following way: Avoiding Dogs reduces the likelihood of being bitten Avoiding Dogs removes fear Removal of fear is rewarding Behaviour is reinforced 36

37 Fear of Dogs via social learning Mother, who is a role model for daughter, is afraid of dogs. Child identifies with mother and wants to be like her Child copies mother s behaviour Child becomes afraid of dogs (vicarious learning) 37

38 Evaluation Underlying causes ignored Treat symptoms not cause Behavioural therapies work well for phobias Environmentally deterministic Use of animals Ecological validity of lab experiments Oversimplified reductionist Ethical implications 38

39 Cognitive Model Cognitive (thought) dysfunction underpins abnormality Individuals are Information Processors A breakdown in cognitive processing causes abnormality Faulty thinking can affect emotions and behaviour 39

40 Cognitive Model Early Experience Dysfunctional Beliefs Life Event Depression Biased Information- Processing Assumptions Activated 40

41 I am helpless and inadequate The world is full of obstacles that I will never master I am worthless, there s no chance of the future being any better 41

42 Life Events Life Events Trigger the faulty processing learned in childhood Lock and Key Approach: Physical abuse by Father in childhood helpless and worthless Physical Illness in later life I can t get better and will die 42

43 Examples You fail a mock exam, Your boy/girl friend is whispering in someone elses ear. Maladaptive response Thinking Feelings Behaviour Outcome 43

44 Evaluation: It is easy to see how negative thinking may lead to depression. Thoughts could be a cause of the disorder but could also be an effect. Cognitive-behavioural model is more effective at treating mental disorders than either model on its own. Neurophysiology in particular the amygdala pathway may under pin the cognitive processes. The person can be helped to change. 44

45 Multi-dimensional Approach Diathesis 45

46 Multi-dimensional Approach Stress: 46

47 Eating Disorders There has been a large increase in the number of people suffering from eating disorders over the past 20 years or so. The increase has been so great that Barlow and Durand (1995) described it as an epidemic 47

48 Eating Disorder Definition A Dysfunctional relationship with food Faulty cognition relating to food Emotional responses to food. 48

49 Anorexia Definition Gross undereating Anxiety Disorder Use of eating behaviour as a method of control 49

50 Clinical Characteristics - Anorexia Nervosa According to DSM-IV, there are four criteria for anorexia nervosa: Weight is less than 85% of that expected Amenorrhoea (absence of menstruation) Body Image Distortion Anxiety about becoming fat Over 90% are adolescent females 50

51 Bulimia Definition Gross over eating and purging Mood Disorder (depression) Use of eating and purging to medicate depressed feelings 51

52 Clinical Characterisitics - Bulimia Nervosa According to DSM-IV, bulimia nervosa is defined by the following five criteria: Binge eating Purge (self-induced vomiting, excessive exercise, going without meals, laxatives) Frequency of binge and purge (twice a week or more) Body image distortion Starts in early adulthood (20 s onwards) 52

53 Similarities Similarity Anorexic Bulimic Distorted body image See themselves as normal size in mirror See themselves as larger in the mirror Obsessive Thinking Fear of food need for control If I binge/purge I will feel better Dysfunctional eating behaviour Don t Eat Binge Purge 53

54 Differences Difference Anorexic Bulimic Weight Reduces Fluctuates around normal Eating patterns Don t Eat Binge Purge Age of onset Early teens Early adulthood 54

55 The Biological Approach Genetic factors - Twin studies Monozygotic (MZ) twins share exactly the same genes Dizygotic twins (DZ) share 50% of the same genes If inherited expect to find more cases of both twins having ED in MZ twins than in DZ twins concordance rates - the extent to which a certain trait in both twins is in agreement 55

56 Holland et al. (1988) and Kendler et al. (1991) studied anorexia and bulimia in twins 56% 5% 26% 16% 56

57 Biochemical factors Links between anorexia and serotonin and also noradrenaline Biochemical abnormalities could be the result of semi-starvation, rather than its cause 57

58 Neuro-anatomy It is possible that anorexics and bulimics have disturbed hypothalamic functioning Damage = No Hunger Damage = No feeling of being full 58

59 The Behavioural Approach Classical conditioning learned association between being overweight and anxiety weight loss is associated with relief from anxiety Operant conditioning food avoidance gets attention, and is rewarding those who are slim are admired - rewarding 59

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61 Modelling Eating disorders are much more common in Western societies Women are rewarded for looking slim Role models available to young women are slim 61

62 Culture-bound Syndrome Anorexia and bulimia are rare in Chinese cultures, and this may be because being overweight is rare too 62

63 The Psychodynamic Approach Sexual development Sexual fears (fear of increasing sexual desires or a fear of becoming pregnant) Sexual abuse as children 63

64 The Psychodynamic Approach Family systems theory The family may play a key role in the development of anorexia (Minuchin et al., 1978) 64

65 The Psychodynamic Approach Struggle for autonomy A struggle for a sense of identity and autonomy, and in conflict with the mother 65

66 The Cognitive Approach Distortion of body image Over-estimation of one s body size Distorted beliefs Women tend to rate their ideal body weight as significantly lower than the weight men say they find most attractive 66

67 Objectives: Outline the Aims, Procedures, Findings, Conclusions and criticisms of: One study of the genes on the development of anorexia One study of the effect of body image on the development of anorexia and bulimia 67