BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME 1

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1 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME 1 Objective 2 : To interpret the nature of reproductive processes and their role in transmitting species characteristics This objective is further broken down into four outcomes Outcome 2A: Distinguish the types of asexual and sexual reproduction Outcome 2B: Describe examples of variation within a species and identify discrete and continuous variation Outcome 2C: Describe the transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring Outcome 2D: Distinguish heritable and nonheritable characteristics Everywhere you look there are examples of organisms that look more or less like their parents. How are these characteristics passed on from generation to generation? You have already learned that the characteristics of organisms vary greatly within a species. How does reproduction allow for variation? Not only do the physical traits of organisms vary, but the ways in which organisms reproduce show variation as well. When a seed germinates, the new plant will have characteristics of both its parents. Whether you examine reproduction in bacteria, maple trees, or elephants, you will notice characteristics that are passed on from parent to offspring. These traits are said to be inherited or heritable. Such traits are passed on in the genetic material, a subject you will learn more about. Living organisms display a wide variety of methods or reproductive strategies for passing on their genetic information to their offspring.

2 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME 2 Outcome 2A: Distinguish the types of asexual and sexual reproduction Reproductive strategies Asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction occurs when only one parent supplies the information to the offspring. The genetic material of the offspring, and thus their inherited characteristics, are identical to those of the parent. This type of reproduction is common among bacteria and fungi. One advantage of asexual reproduction is that there is no need for an organism to find a mate. Also, reproduction can occur quite rapidly. As long as the environment does not change much, offspring produced by asexual reproduction will be able to survive and reproduce as their parents did. There are various forms of asexual reproduction. They include: Binary Fission, Budding, Spore Production and Vegetative Reproduction. Each one results in offspring that are clones (genetically identical copies) of the parent. Let s look at each one separately. o Binary fission: Many one-celled organisms such as the amoeba (seen to the right) reproduce asexually using a form of cell division called binary fission. The cell first duplicates its contents; including the DNA in the nucleus and other organelles. It also doubles in size during this process. After the amoeba divides, each new cell has a copy of the genetic material, and is the same size as the original parent cell. As a result the offspring are identical. o Budding: Organisms such as hydra and yeast reproduce asexually by budding. During budding, the parent produces a small bud, or a smaller version of itself. The bud is genetically identical to the parent cell and will eventually grow to be identical in size as well. In animals, such as the hydra (see diagram to the right), the bud eventually detaches and becomes a new individual identical to its parent. This is also true of yeast, which is a unicellular fungus. Yeast is the organism that causes bread to rise in the oven. o Spore production: Some non-flowering plants such as ferns reproduce by producing spores. Some people confuse spores and seeds. Spores are produced by the division of cells of the parent, not by the union of two cells like seeds. One individual will produce many spores, and each spore can develop into a new individual identical to the parent. Often, thousands of spores can be seen on a plant and the wind will blow the spores to new areas where a plant identical to the parent will grow. Another difference between a spore and a seed is that a spore doesn t contain nutrients to enable the spore to grow and it must therefore land directly in a suitable environment that will immediately support the growth of the new organism. o Vegetative Reproduction: Many plants produce offspring which grow right from their roots or grow a part called a runner which will take root and grow. This is one type of vegetative reproduction, in which a genetically identical plant grows from the parent plant (there are other

3 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME 3 types of vegetative reproduction, but runners are all you need to know for now). The plants produced through vegetative reproduction will be genetically identical to the parent. Sexual reproduction Sexual reproduction involves two individuals. Most species of animals and flowering plants reproduce sexually. The offspring of sexual reproduction will have a mix of the characteristics of both individuals, ensuring that there is always a mix of characteristics in each generation. This allows for variation within a species. Sexual reproduction in plants or animals relies on the union of two specialized cells known as gametes. A gamete is a cell that has one role only, which is to join with another gamete during reproduction. This joining of gametes results in the DNA necessary for the offspring to grow. o Sexual reproduction in animals: Almost all animal species, from salmon to dragonflies to bears, reproduce sexually. Although the details may vary, the important events in animal reproduction are the same. Sexual reproduction involves specialized cells known as gametes (sex cells). The male gametes are called sperm cells, and the female gametes are known as egg cells. The union of the sperm cell with the egg cell occurs during mating and is called fertilization. The cell created by the joining of the two gametes is known as a zygote. The zygote is the first cell of a new individual that has the complete set of DNA. The zygote then divides billions of times until a multi-cellular life form resembling a human is formed. When a life form that resembles the basic structure of the parents is first seen, the life form is referred to as an embryo. Depending on the species, the development of the embryo may occur inside the female parent, which happens in most mammals, or outside, in an egg, which happens in most other types of animals. The new individual will show some of the characteristics of its female parent and some of its male parent. Although the new individual may resemble one parent more than the other, it will not be identical to either parent. o Sexual reproduction in plants: As in animals, sexual reproduction in plants requires the joining of a male gamete with a female gamete. Most plants produce both male and female gametes. Pollen contains the male gametes of a plant and is produced by the anther of the plant. It is pollen that you often see floating around the air in the summer. When this pollen reaches the stigma, cross pollination has occurred. The pollen is then transferred to the egg where cross fertilization occurs and a zygote is formed (plants can pollinate and fertilize themselves which is just called pollination or fertilization). Just like animal reproduction, this zygote turns into an embryo that will grow to have a blend of characteristics from the male and female. The embryo will eventually develop into a new individual. In most plants, the embryo is produced inside a seed. The seed protects the embryo and stores food for the embryo to use when it begins to grow into a new individual. Some species can reproduce asexually and sexually You learned above that yeast reproduced asexually through budding. Yeast can also reproduce sexually. You will later learn about what types of environmental conditions will lead to some species producing asexually at times and sexually at other times. Many types of plants can also reproduce

4 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME 4 either way. You learned above that many plants can reproduce asexually through vegetative reproduction, but many of those plants can also reproduce sexually through seeds, which results in genetic variation in the offspring. 1. How many parent(s) are needed for asexual reproduction to occur? One 2. Explain binary fission and give an example of an organism that reproduces this way -The splitting of a parent cell into two identical cells -The amoeba 3. Explain why the following sentence is false! When an organism reproduces by budding, the new organism(s) created are genetically identical but smaller than the parent throughout their life -They grow to be the same size 4. When a species reproduces sexually, are there any individuals that are genetically identical to the generation before it? No 5. The sex cells (either male or female) of an animal are known as gametes -. The male gamete is called the sperm - while the female gamete is called the egg -. When the gametes join this is called fertilization -. This results in the first cell of a new individual. This cell is called the zygote - and after many cell divisions results in a multicellular embryo The anther of a plant produces the male gamete called pollen -. When this male gamete reaches the stamen of another plant cross - pollination - has occurred. When the male gamete reaches the female gamete (also known as the egg -), of another plant cross - - fertilization - has occurred. Use the following information to answer the next question 7. At what step above (W, X, Y or Z) does fertilization occur? X Put a checkmark in the box if the statement refers to that type of reproduction Produces offspring identical to its parents Fertilization must occur by 2 gametes joining Binary fission Budding Spores Vegetative Reproduction Sexual Reproduction Most plants that use this type of reproduction can also reproduce sexually Parent splits into two identical cells A smaller version of the parent splits off from the parent and then grows 9. Put a checkmark in the box if the statement refers to that type of sexual reproduction Plant sexual reproduction Fertilization must occur by 2 gametes joining A sperm joins an egg for fertilization Pollen joins an egg for cross fertilization Animal sexual reproduction

5 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME 5 A zygote forms when gametes join An embryo develops from the zygote The offspring will have genetic similarities, to the parents but will never be genetically identical to them Outcome 2B: Describe examples of variation within a species and identify discrete and continuous variation Variation Why do some people have blue eyes, while others have brown eyes? What makes some people redheads and others brunettes? Are some people born great musicians, or do their talents simply develop with practice? We know that certain characteristics (also known as traits) are passed on from one generation to another, but sometimes strange things seem to happen. You may know someone who is the jock of her family, while her brother can't throw a ball straight no matter how hard he tries. For thousands of years, people have tried to explain how parents' traits are passed on to their children. Why are some traits passed on and others are not? Does one parent have more influence than the other? Why are some traits more common than others? Are all traits passed on in the same way? The passing on of DNA (and therefore traits) from parents to their offspring is called heredity. The branch of science that deals with the study of heredity is called genetics. Pea plants (shown to the right) are one of the first species that scientists studied when they became interested in heredity, genetics and variation. Some of the variations that you will find in pea plants are shown to the right. Of course, every species will show variations of its own. There are two main types of variation; Continuous and Discrete. These are explained below. Continuous variation Continuous variation refers to differences in traits that have a range of forms. They are not one form or another. For example, the height of adult humans can range from 1.2 m to 2.1 m, with an endless number of different heights in between. In squirrels, mass can range anywhere between 133 g and 249 g. Human skin color is another type of continuous variation. There is countless skin colors in-between very light and very dark skin. It is difficult to study traits that show continuous variation because the instructions for these traits comes from many different areas of our DNA. For example, scientists estimate that there are at least 100 different spots on your DNA that controlled the color of your skin. Scientists however, are far from actually identifying where these spots are or how they interact with each other to determine skin color. Discrete variation Other traits are examples of discrete variation. Discrete variation refers to traits that have a limited number of possibilities. For example, the ability to curl your tongue is genetic. There are only two possibilities: you can do it or you cannot. The ABC blood group is another example of a discrete genetic trait. In this

6 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME 6 case there are four possibilities: blood group A, B, AB, or O. Gender (male or female) is another example of discrete variation. Discrete variation is like a report card that uses letter grades such as A, B, C, D or F. Our knowledge of genetics is focused on "discrete" traits because they are easier to understand and test. The reason for this is that the instructions for these traits comes from one single area of our DNA. Because of this, scientists have been able to more easily identify areas that provide instructions for various traits that show discrete variation. 10. Height, intelligence, length of pinky finger, and eye color are all examples of characteristics that people have. What is another word for characteristics? Traits 11. What does heredity mean? The passing on of DNA and traits from one generation to the next 12. Describe the difference between traits that show continuous vs discrete variation Traits that show continuous variation have a range of forms Traits that discrete variation have a limited number of forms 13. Why is it easier to find the DNA responsible for traits that show discrete variation rather than continuous variation? The instructions for discrete traits are found in only one area of the DNA 14. Put a C beside any of the following traits that are continuous variation. Put a D beside any that are discrete variation Blood type Height Gender Hand size Skin color Ability of immune system to fight cancer Ability to bend thumb back (hitchhikers thumb) or not D C D C C C D

7 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME 7 Outcome 2C: Describe the transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring Variation Long before research scientists discovered chromosomes and genes, plant and animal breeders were conducting experiments in controlled breeding. To prevent unwanted outcomes, only animals with the most desirable characteristics, or traits, were allowed to reproduce. A trait can be physical (such as eye color or blood type) or behavioral (such as being lazy or hyperactive). Early experiments in controlled breeding were not always successful. For example, mating fast running male horses with fast running female horses did not always produce fast running offspring. But by keeping written records of failures as well as successes, the breeders began to detect certain basic patterns of inheritance. Scientists now explain the patterns they discovered in terms of genes. A gene is a segment of DNA that provides instructions on a specific trait. Each of your parents gave you a gene for each trait you have. Therefore, every trait has 2 separate genes and they may not be the same. So you have two genes for each trait, but to determine which one was actually used to make up that specific trait may have depended on which gene was the stronger one. Dominant versus Recessive gene Each of your parents gave you a gene for each of your traits. The two genes together make up your genotype for any given trait. Sometimes they both gave you the same gene (the same set of instructions), in which case you will have the same trait as both of your parents. For example, they both may have given you the gene for being able to roll your tongue. But sometimes, one parent will give you one gene (set of instructions) for a certain trait, and the other parent will have given you a different set of instructions for the same trait. Which one you will have depends of which one was dominant and which one was recessive. If you have a dominant gene and a recessive gene for any given trait, the dominant gene will be the one represented (it will win). This is best explained using Punnett squares. Punnett squares A Punnett square is a chart which shows all possible gene combinations for a set of parents for a particular trait. Punnett squares are named for an English geneticist, Reginald Punnett. Lets look at a Punnett square for the fur color of cats. Each cat has two genes for fur color. Which one is represented depends on which one is dominant and which one is recessive. The dominant trait is always expressed when mixed with a recessive trait. Black fur is the dominant trait when it comes to cats and white fur is recessive.

8 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME 8 For the following Punnett square B represents the gene for black fur, and b represents the gene for white fur. The mother and the father both have one of each of the genes. If we fill in the Punnett square we have the 4 potential offspring genotypes. Each time a kitten is born, it will have a 25% chance of inheriting each one of the genotypes. If a kitten is born with the genotype BB it inherited two genes for black fur so of course it will be black. There are two genotypes above that are Bb. Since B is dominant over b, any cat with the Bb genotype will also be black, but will have the gene for being white hidden in its DNA. Any kitten born with the bb genotype will be white. In the example above, there is a 3 in 4 chance of any kitten being black and a 1 in 4 chance of it being white. o Differences/Similarities between parents and offspring When it comes to comparing an offspring s traits to his/her parents, there are 4 possibilities for the offspring. (Let s use the cat example we were using above). 1) The kitten can be the same as both of his/her parents (ex: both parents are black and the kitten is as well). One of the sets of genotypes for the mother and father is BB and Bb respectively. With these genotypes both parents would be black. The combinations of different offspring can be determined Notice how no offspring will be white because they all have at least one dominant B gene in their genotypes. There are other genotype possibilities that the parents could have had. For instance BB and BB would produce all black kittens. Genotypes Bb, Bb would result in a 75% chance of each kitten being born black (try making a Punnett square to test it out) 2) The kitten can be different from both parents (ex: both parents are black and the kitten is white).

9 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME 9 There is only one possible genotype for this situation to occur because each parent has to be carrying at least 1 recessive b gene. Notice that in this particular situation there was only a 1 in 4 chance of the kitten being born white (the bb genotype) 3) The cat can be the same as one parent (ex: one parent is black, one is white, and the kitten is black). The mother must have a bb genotype since she is white. The father could either have a BB or a Bb. In the example below, the father has a BB genotype, which would result in 100% of his offspring being born black since there is a B in every one of the boxes. 4) For the 4 th situation, Punnett squares are not needed: In this situation, the offspring is a cross between the 2 parents. The above dominant-recessive pattern of inheritance does not always prevail because some traits do not have genes that are dominant or recessive. Instead, each gene has equal strength. For example, when a purebred snapdragon bearing red flowers is crossed with a purebred snapdragon bearing white flowers, the offspring are neither red nor white. Instead, the flowers are pink, a

10 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME 10 color intermediate between red and white. This pattern of inheritance is known as incomplete dominance. Both the white-flower gene and the red-flower gene have played a part in determining the flower. 15. Each of your parents gave you a set of instructions that determine whether you can roll your tongue or not. What is each of these sets of instructions called? A gene 17. Peas can either be green or yellow. The gene for being green is dominant and the gene for being yellow is recessive. If a pea has a genotype with one of each gene, will the pea be green or yellow? Green (it is dominant) 16. For the trait of being able to bend your thumb back (hitchhikers thumb) or not being able to bend your thumb back, each of your parents gave you a gene. When both of these genes are together in your DNA, this is called your -genotype -.. Use the following information to answer the next 6 questions Peas can either be Round (R) or wrinkled (r). Round is dominant while wrinkled is recessive 18. An individual pea is round. What are its 2 possible genotypes? RR Rr 19. An individual pea is wrinkled. What is it s only possible genotype? rr 20. If one parent has the genotype of Rr and the other has a genotype of rr, what percentage of offspring should be born round? Use the Punnett square to help you 24. Think for yourself! Give an example of a human characteristic that shows incomplete dominance Skin color 25. Pick the correct bolded terms below 26. Pick the correct bolded terms below and fill in any blanks. 21. If one parent pea is smooth with the genotype RR and the other is wrinkled (rr), what is the chance of these two peas having a wrinkled offspring?

11 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME If both parents are wrinkled, what is the chance that they will have a wrinkled offspring? Draw and complete a punnett square to find out the answer 23. A pea is born wrinkled but both of the parents are smooth. What is the only possible genotype of both the mother and the father? Mother and father both have genotype of Rr Lllllllllll Outcome 2D: Distinguish heritable and non-heritable characteristics Heritable vs Non-heritable traits You learned earlier that traits (characteristics) are inherited (they are heritable) from the generation before. That is why offspring look so much like their parents. You will learn in this section that while most traits are inherited, some are non-heritable. You will also learn that the environment has a role in shaping some traits of individuals. Genetics is the field of science that deals with the study of heredity. Traits that are 100% inherited (heritable) A lot of your traits are inherited. This includes things like your blood type, number of bones you are born with, and if you can curl your tongue or not. Any trait that is determined by your genes (DNA) is considered to be heritable. Traits that are 100% non-heritable Some traits have absolutely nothing to do with your parents and won t be passed down to future generations. These are traits like scars, hearing loss due to listening to loud music, or liver damage due to excess alcohol consumption. Traits that are non-heritable occur after an organism is born and are therefore not caused by your DNA. As a result, they are not passed down to the offspring. Traits due to inheritance AND the environment A lot of traits fall into this category. While traits like height have an obvious heritable component, height can also be shaped by environmental factors. For instance, if a child is not fed right while they are growing, they would end up shorter than if they were fed right. Scientists debate about the role of genetics vs the role of environment for many traits: o Genetics vs Environment

12 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME 12 Not all characteristics are inherited. Some characteristics depend entirely on the environment. For example, scars and injuries are not caused by genetics. In addition, clothing, hairstyle, makeup, and even cosmetic surgery can alter person s characteristics. However, a person's weight (mass) is due to a combination of factors such as genetics, diet, and activity level. The interactions between a person's genetics and the environment are complex and not well understood. The balance between the two is continually being debated. Some believe that "all people are created equal." They argue that a person's characteristics are due to his or her opportunities and choices and the environment they are exposed to. Others believe that DNA is responsible for all of someone's traits, including a person's likes and dislikes. The debate on the role of heredity and the environment in determining human characteristics continues today. Modern science has tried to separate traits that are completely inherited from those that are inherited but also can be influenced by the environment. One method that has been used is to study the similarities and differences between identical twins that have been separated at birth and raised in different environments. Since identical twins have the same genetic information, they share inherited traits. Some of the results of these studies are highly controversial and hard to explain. In one example, a pair of identical male twins was separated when they were five days old. When they were reunited, many years later, it turned out that they were both volunteer firefighters, had the same type of moustache, and wore the same style of sunglasses. Other identical twins separated at birth seem to be quite different in many ways. Some people argue that examples such as these show that many complex behaviors are inherited. We now know the environment and our genetics interact to produce many of our characteristics. At this stage, however, we still have a lot to learn. 1. Think of a 3 traits not mentioned in the above reading that are non-heritable (that are due to environment only). - broken bone, lost tooth, shaved head 2. Explain the difference between genetics and environment in determining characteristics of an individual. Genetics is what is given to you through heredity (your DNA) and the environment is referring to what you are exposed to 3. Is blood type due to genetics, environment, or both? genetics 4. Do you think skin color is due to genetics, environment, or both? Explain Both: you can tan to change color 5. Is the ability to be really good at hockey due to genetics, environment, or both?

13 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME 13 Both 6. Is vision loss due to excess staring at the sun due to genetics, environment, or both? environment 7. Which of the following is true about traits that are non-heritable A. They are 100% due to DNA B. They are 100% due to the environment C. They are due to a combination of genetics and environment B 8. Will genetically identical organisms always have the same traits? EXPLAIN WHY OR WHY NOT No, because they likely did not grow up in the exact same environment.

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15 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME 15 2A Strawberries, like many other plants, can reproduce asexually through vegetative reproduction as well a sexually through seed production.

16 BIODIVERSITY Objective 2 NAME Explain asexual reproduction in your own words Asexual reproduction occurs when only one parent supplies the genetic information to the offspring 10. What are 4 main types of asexual reproduction? -Binary fission -Budding -Spores -Vegetative reproduction A red female Mystus fish breeds with a white male Mystus fish. They produce 5 red offspring and 1 white offspring. Being red in the Mystus fish must be dominant/recessive. The next offspring will MOST LIKELY be red/pink/white. A black male Groeger fish breeds with a while female Groeger fish and they produce 3 grey offspring. The next offspring will MOST LIKELY be black/grey/white because this trait is showing the pattern of