An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology professor edit

Transcription

1 1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology professor edit PowerPoint Lecture Presentations prepared by Jason LaPres Lone Star College North Harris

2 An Introduction to Studying the Human Body You must be able to define anatomy and physiology, describe the origins of anatomical and physiological terms Explain the relationship between anatomy and physiology, and describe various specialties of each discipline. Identify the major levels of organization in organisms, from the simplest to the most complex, and identify major components of each organ system. Explain the concept of homeostasis.

3 An Introduction to Studying the Human Body Learning Outcomes Describe how negative feedback and positive feedback are involved in homeostatic regulation, and explain the significance of homeostasis. Use anatomical terms to describe body sections, body regions, and relative positions. Identify the major body cavities and their subdivisions, and describe the functions of each.

4 An Introduction to Studying the Human Body Classification of Living Things Humans and many other animals are vertebrates Characterized by a segmented vertebral column Homeostasis The goal of physiological regulation and the key to survival in a changing environment

5 1-1 Anatomy and Physiology Directly Affect Your Life Anatomy Is the oldest medical science Physiology Is the study of function

6 1-2 Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success Study Strategies Attend all lectures, labs, and study sessions Read your lecture and laboratory assignments before going to class or lab Devote a block of time each day to your A&P course Set up a study schedule and stick to it Do not procrastinate Approach the information in different ways Develop the skill of memorization, and practice it regularly As soon as you experience difficulty with the course, seek assistance

7 1-2 Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success Important Features of the Textbook use what is available to you! Learning Outcomes Illustrations, Tables, and Photos Pronunciation Guides Checkpoint Questions Tips & Tricks Clinical Notes Arrow Icons End-of-Chapter Study and Review Materials Systems Integrators Colored Tabs End-of-Book Reference Sections

8 1-3 Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy Describes the structures of the body What they are made of Where they are located Associated structures Physiology Is the study of: Functions of anatomical structures Individual and cooperative functions

9 1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy (macroscopic vs microscopic) Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines large, visible structures Surface anatomy: exterior features superficial markings Regional anatomy: body areas-neck, head Systemic anatomy: organ systems Developmental anatomy: from conception to death Clinical anatomy: medical specialties (anatomical features change when you are in a diseased state)

10 1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy Microscopic anatomy examines cells and molecules Cytology: study of cells and their structures cyt- = cell Histology: study of tissues and their structures

11 1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology Physiology Cell physiology: processes within and between cells Organ physiology: functions of specific organs Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system Pathological physiology: effects of diseases

12 1-5 Levels of Organization The Chemical (or Molecular) Level Atoms are the smallest chemical units Molecules are a group of atoms working together The Cellular Level Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles working together The Tissue Level A tissue is a group of similar cells working together The Organ Level An organ is a group of different tissues working together

13 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ System Level An organ system is a group of organs working together Humans have 11 organ systems The Organism Level A human is an organism

14 Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization Cellular Level Chemical and Molecular Levels Heart muscle cell Complex protein molecule Protein filaments Atoms in combination

15 Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization Tissue Level Organ Level Organ system level Organism level Cardiac muscle tissue The heart The cardiovascular system

16 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Integumentary Major Organs Skin Hair Sweat glands Nails Functions Protects against environmental hazards (eyelashes help protect our eyes from debris;thick skin on our heels and soles of our feet) Helps regulate body temperature (sweating helps us cool off) Provides sensory information (sensitive skin on our hands)

17 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Skeletal Major Organs Bones Cartilages Associated ligaments Bone marrow Functions Provides support and protection for other tissues (rib cage protects our vital organs) Stores calcium and other minerals (osteoporosis) Forms blood cells

18 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Muscular Major Organs Skeletal muscles and associated tendons Functions Provides movement Provides protection and support for other tissues Generates heat that maintains body temperature

19 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Nervous Major Organs Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nerves Sense organs Functions Directs immediate responses to stimuli (Removing your hand from touching a hot plate) Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems (how dose your brain control your muscular organ system when you are working out?) Provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions (You brain interprets what you smell, touch, hear)

20 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Endocrine Major Organs Pituitary gland Pancreas Gonads Thyroid gland Adrenal glands Endocrine tissues in other systems Functions Directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body Controls many structural and functional changes during development (think about how your body changes during puberty/growth spurt!)

21 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Cardiovascular Major Organs Heart Blood Blood vessels Functions Distributes blood cells, water and dissolved materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature

22 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Lymphatic Major Organs Spleen Thymus Lymphatic vessels Lymph nodes Tonsils Functions Defends against infection and disease (think about why the doctor feels for swollen lymph nodes in your neck when you are sick) Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream

23 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Respiratory Major Organs Nasal cavities Sinuses Larynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs Alveoli

24 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Respiratory Functions Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchange occurs) Provides oxygen to bloodstream Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream Produces sounds for communication (talking)

25 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Digestive Major Organs Teeth Tongue Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Liver Gallbladder Pancreas

26 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Digestive Functions Processes and digests food Absorbs and conserves water Absorbs nutrients Stores energy reserves

27 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Urinary Major Organs Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder Urethra Functions Excretes waste products from the blood Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced (hydration versus dehydration) Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination Regulates blood ion concentrations and ph

28 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Male Reproductive Major Organs Testes Epididymides Ductus deferentia Seminal vesicles Prostate gland Penis Scrotum

29 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Male Reproductive Functions Produces male sex cells (sperm), suspending fluids, and hormones Sexual intercourse

30 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Female Reproductive Major Organs Ovaries Uterine tubes Uterus Vagina Labia Clitoris Mammary glands

31 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Female Reproductive Functions Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones Supports developing embryo from conception to delivery Provides milk to nourish newborn infant Sexual intercourse

32 1-6 Homeostasis Homeostasis All body systems working together to maintain a stable internal environment (remember by thinking you are comfortable at home) Systems respond to external and internal changes to function within a normal range (body temperature, fluid balance)

33 1-6 Homeostasis Mechanisms of Regulation Autoregulation (intrinsic) Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some environmental change Ex: When cells within a tissue need more oxygen, they release chemicals that cause an increase in blood flow to the area, providing more oxygen to the region. Extrinsic regulation Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems Ex: When you are exercising, your nervous system issues commands that increase the heart rate so that blood will circulate faster. The nervous system reduces blood flow to organs, such as the digestive tract, that are relatively inactive (oxygen in circulating blood is thus saved for the active muscles.)

34 1-6 Homeostasis Receptor Receives the stimulus Control center Processes the signal and sends instructions Effector Carries out instructions

35 Figure 1-2 The Control of Room Temperature Room temperature ( C) Normal condition disturbed RECEPTOR Thermometer Information affects STIMULUS: Room temperature rises HOMEOSTASIS Normal room temperature CONTROL CENTER (Thermostat) Air conditioner turns on Air conditioner turns off Normal condition restored RESPONSE: Room temperature drops EFFECTOR Air conditioner turns on Sends commands to In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a thermostat (the control center) triggers an effector response (either an air conditioner or a heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case, when room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostat turns on the air conditioner, and the temperature returns to normal. 22 Time Normal range With this regulatory system, room temperature fluctuates around the set point.

36 1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback The Role of Negative Feedback The response of the effector negates the stimulus Body is brought back into homeostasis Normal range is achieved

37 Figure 1-3 Negative Feedback in the Control of Body Temperature Body temperature ( C) Normal temperature disturbed STIMULUS: Body temperature rises RECEPTORS Temperature sensors in skin and hypothalamus Information affects CONTROL CENTER HOMEOSTASIS Normal body temperature RESPONSE: Increased heat loss, body temperature drops Thermoregulatory center in brain Vessels dilate, sweating increases Vessels constrict, sweating decreases Normal temperature restored EFFECTORS Sweat glands in skin increase secretion Blood vessels in skin dilate Sends commands to Events in the regulation of body temperature, which are comparable to those shown in Figure 1 2. A control center in the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostat with a set point of 37 C. If body temperature exceeds 37.2 C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flow to the skin and increased sweating Normal range Time The thermoregulatory center keeps body temperature fluctuating within an acceptable range, usually between 36.7 and 37.2 C.

38 1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback The Role of Positive Feedback The response of the effector increases change of the stimulus Body is moved away from homeostasis Normal range is lost Used to speed up processes

39 Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting Clotting accelerates Positive feedback loop Chemicals Chemicals Blood clot Damage to cells in the blood vessel wall releases chemicals that begin the process of blood clotting. The chemicals start chain reactions in which cells, cell fragments, and soluble proteins in the blood begin to form a clot. As clotting continues, each step releases chemicals that further accelerate the process. This escalating process is a positive feedback loop that ends with the formation of a blood clot, which patches the vessel wall and stops the bleeding.

40 1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback Systems Integration Systems work together to maintain homeostasis Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium (equal) Opposing forces are in balance Dynamic equilibrium continual adaptation (always changing to reach a balance) Physiological systems work to restore balance Failure results in disease or death

41 Table 1-1 The Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation Know some examples from each column. (1) Name a system involve a system involved in regulating body temperature. (2) What is the systems function? (1) Integumentary (2) heat loss by sweating

42 1-8 Anatomical Terminology Superficial Anatomy Locating structures on or near the body surface Anatomical Landmarks Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward Supine: lying down, face up Prone: lying down, face down

43 1-8 Anatomical Terminology Superficial Anatomy Anatomical Landmarks References to tangible structures Anatomical Regions Body regions Abdominopelvic quadrants Abdominopelvic regions Anatomical Directions Reference terms based on subject

44 Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks I will not ask you to label these on a model, but I will use anatomical landmarks when referring to quadrants, regions, and directions. So you must at least know the terms. Ex: Is the carpal superior or anterior to the palmar? Cephalic or head Oral or mouth Mental or chin Axillary or armpit Brachial or arm Antecubital or front of elbow Cranial or skull Facial or face Frontal or forehead Nasal or nose Ocular, orbital or eye Otic or ear Buccal or cheek Cervical or neck Thoracic or thorax, chest Mammary or breast Abdominal (abdomen) Umbilical or navel Trunk Anterior view

45 Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks Antebrachial or forearm Pelvic (pelvis) Trunk Carpal or wrist Palmar or palm Manual or hand Pollex or thumb Digits (phalanges) or fingers (digital or phalangeal) Patellar or kneecap Crural or leg Tarsal or ankle Digits (phalanges) or toes (digital or phalangeal) Hallux or great toe Anterior view Pedal or foot Inguinal or groin Pubic (pubis) Femoral or thigh

46 Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks Cephalic or head Acromial or shoulder Dorsal or back Cervical or neck Olecranal or back of elbow Upper limb Posterior view

47 Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks Lumbar or loin Upper limb Gluteal or buttock Popliteal or back of knee Lower limb Sural or calf Calcaneal or heel of foot Plantar or sole of foot Posterior view

48 Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions L and R refer to the subject, not the observer! Gall Bladder or Liver problems Appendicitis Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four abdominopelvic quadrants are formed by two perpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. The terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations, are most often used in clinical discussions.

49 Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Right hypochondriac region Epigastric region Left hypochondriac region Right lumbar region Right inguinal region Umbilical region Hypogastric (pubic) region Left lumbar region Left inguinal region Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic regions provide more precise regional descriptions.

50 Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Liver Gallbladder Large intestine Stomach Spleen Small intestine Appendix Urinary bladder Anatomical relationships. The relationship between the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and the locations of the internal organs are shown here.

51 Table 1-2 Directional Terms

52 Figure 1-7 Directional References Cranial Superior Right Left Proximal Posterior or dorsal Anterior or ventral Lateral Medial Caudal Proximal Distal A lateral view. Inferior Distal An anterior view. Arrows indicate important directional terms used in this text; definitions and descriptions are given in Table 1 2.

53 1-8 Anatomical Terminology Sectional Anatomy Planes and sections Plane: a three-dimensional axis Section: a slice parallel to a plane Used to visualize internal organization and structure Important in radiological techniques MRI PET CT

54 Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes Frontal plane Sagittal plane Transverse plane

55 Table 1-3 Terms That Indicate Sectional Planes

56 1-9 Body Cavities Essential Functions of Body Cavities 1. Protect organs from accidental shocks 2. Permit changes in size and shape of internal organs Ventral body cavity (coelom) Divided by the diaphragm Thoracic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity

57 Figure 1-9 Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Ventral Body Cavity Ventral Body Cavity Provides protection Allows organ movement Linings prevent friction Subdivides during development into Thoracic Cavity Surrounded by chest wall and diaphragm Abdominopelvic Cavity Peritoneal Cavity Right Pleural Cavity Surrounds right lung Mediastinum Contains the trachea, esophagus, and major vessels Left Pleural Cavity Surrounds left lung Abdominal Cavity Extends throughout abdominal cavity and into superior portion of pelvic cavity Pelvic Cavity Pericardial Cavity Surrounds heart Contains many digestive glands and organs Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, last portion of digestive tract

58 1-9 Body Cavities Serous Membranes Line body cavities and cover organs Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer Parietal layer lines cavity Visceral layer covers organ

59 1-9 Body Cavities The Thoracic Cavity Right and left pleural cavities Contain right and left lungs Mediastinum Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymus Lower portion contains pericardial cavity The heart is located within the pericardial cavity

60 Figure 1-10a The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions POSTERIOR ANTERIOR Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity Thoracic cavity Diaphragm Peritoneal cavity Abdominal cavity Abdominopelvic cavity Pelvic cavity

61 Figure 1-10b The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions Heart Visceral pericardium Pericardial cavity Parietal pericardium Air space Balloon

62 Figure 1-10c The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions ANTERIOR Pericardial cavity Pleural cavity Parietal pleura Mediastinum Spinal cord Right lung Left lung POSTERIOR

63 1-9 Body Cavities The Abdominopelvic Cavity Peritoneal cavity: chamber within abdominopelvic cavity Parietal peritoneum: lines the internal body wall Visceral peritoneum: covers the organs

64 1-9 Body Cavities The Abdominopelvic Cavity Abdominal cavity superior portion Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones Contains digestive organs Retroperitoneal space Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular body wall Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the digestive tract

65 1-9 Body Cavities The Abdominopelvic Cavity Pelvic cavity inferior portion Within pelvic bones Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder