LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR BY 124 EXAM III

Transcription

1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR BY 124 EXAM III Chapter Distinguish between herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores. 2. Describe the following feeding mechanisms and give examples of animals that use each: A. Filter feeders B. Substrate feeders C. Fluid feeders D. Bulk feeders 3. Define digestion. 4. Distinguish between intracellular and extracellular digestion. Give examples of organisms that do each. 5. Why is extracellular digestion advantageous? 6. Using Hydra as an example describe how a gastrovascular cavity functions in both digestion and distribution of nutrients. 7. List the major phyla which use gastrovascular cavities for digestion. 8. Discuss how extracellular digestion is different in fungi and animals. 9. Why are complete digestive tracts advantageous? 8. List regions of the digestive tracts of grasshoppers, earthworms, and birds. What are the function of each? 9. What are the four stages of food processing? 10. Define peristalsis and describe its role in the digestive tract. 11. List the 3 major pair of salivary glands. What is the function of saliva? 12. What is the anatomy of a tooth? Starting in the middle of the mouth, name the teeth on both sides of the mouth. 13. Describe the role of salivary amylase in digestion 14. Describe the sequence of events which occur as a result of the swallowing reflex.

2 15. Describe the function of the esophagus and explain how peristalsis in the esophagus if controlled. 16. Name and describe the 4 layers of the intestines. 17. What are sphincters? Name the ones associated with the stomach. How are they controlled? 18. List the three types of secretory cells found in the stomach epithelium and what substances they secrete. 19. What is the ph of the stomach? Why is this important? 20. What is the role of pepsin? 21. Why does the stomach not digest itself? 22. What is considered to be the major cause of ulcers? 23. Explain how pepsin and acid secretion are regulated and describe the roles of the hormone gastrin. 24. Define the term bolus. What is chyme? 25. What are the three areas of the stomach? 26. Describe the sequence of events which occur in response to acid chyme entering the duodenum and include the roles of: (Include where each of these is produced.) A. Secretin B. Biocarbonate C. Cholecystokinin (CCK) D. Gall bladder E. Bile 27. Describe how pancreatic zymogens for proteolytic enzymes are activated in the duodenum and include the role of the intestinal enzyme enteropeptidase. 28. What is the difference between endopeptidases and exopeptidases? Which enzymes belong to each group? 29. What is the ph of the small intestine? What causes this ph?.

3 30. Describe the complete enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, including the reactants and products for each enzymatic reactions and whether they occur in the A. Mouth B. Stomach C.. Lumen of the small intestine D. Brush border of small intestine 31. List the three regions of the small intestine. What is the major role of each? 32. How is the length of the intestine related to diet? 33. Explain why the many folds, villi, and microvilli are important in the small intestine. 34. Describe how specific nutrients are absorbed across the intestinal epithelium and across the capillary or lacteal. 35. Explain what happens to glycerol and fatty acids after they are absorbed into the intestinal epithelium. What are chylomicrons and what happens to them? 36. Explain the function of the hepatic portal system. 37. List the parts of the large intestine. 38. What is the role of the large intestine? 39. What is the basal metabolic rate? 40. Define calorie. 41. What is meant by essential nutrients? 42. List the four classes of organic materials needed and what each is used for in the body. 43. List and distinguish between fat soluble and water soluble vitamins. Explain how they are used in the body. 44. What are minerals? How are the majority of them used in the body? CHAPTER Describe the four general requirements for a respiratory surface and list the variety of respiratory organs adapted for this purpose.

4 2. Describe countercurrent exchange and explain why it is more efficient than concurrent flow of water and blood. 3. Describe tracheal systems. What are their disadvantages? Give an example of an animal in which they occur. 4. For the human respiratory system, describe the movement of air through air passageways to the alveolus, listing the structures it must pass through on the journey. 5. List and describe the 4 parts of respiration. 6. What animals have lungs? 7. Define negative pressure breathing and explain how respiratory movements in humans ventilate the lungs. 8. Why do premature babies have problems with their lungs? 9. Define the following terms. A. Tidal volume B. Vital capacity C. Residual volume 10. Explain how breathing is controlled. 11. Distinguish between hemocyanin and hemoglobin 12. What is the role of chemoreceptors in breathing. Where are they located? 13. Discuss how bird lungs differ from human lungs. 14. Distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems. Give an example of animals which have each. 15. How does hemolymph differ from blood? 16. Understand the movement of substances from the blood into cells. 17. Compare the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries. How does this relate to their functions? 18. How do things move out of the capillaries related to hydrostatic and osmotic pressures?

5 19. Why does blood slow in the capillaries? 20. What are thoroughfare channels? 21. How does blood return to the heart in veins when it is going against gravity? 22. Distinguish between the pulmonary and systemic circuits and explain the function of each. 23. Trace a drop of blood through the human heart, listing all structures though which it would pass. 24. Describe the beating of the heart. 25. Compare the waves on an EKG to the parts of question Compare the circulation in fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. 27. What are the three differences in fetal circulation? What are their functions? How does this change at birth and why? 28. Why is blood considered a connective tissue? 29. List the components of blood and describe the function of each. 30. Outline the formation of erythrocytes from stem cells to destruction. 31. What are the function of the components in plasma? 32. What are the main function of the blood cells? 33. Describe the structure of hemoglobin, explain the result of cooperative binding 34. What is the role of erythropoietin? What organ is its activation associated with? 35. Why is hemoglobin considered an allosteric molecule? What acts as a negative allosteric modulator for hemoglobin? 36. Describe the Bohr shift. Why is it important? 37. Describe how carbon dioxide is picked up at the tissues and deposited in the lungs. 38. What are the ways that carbon dioxide is carried in the blood? 39.. How does hemoglobin act as a buffer?

6 40. Outline the sequence of events that occur during blood clotting. 41. Using blood types as an example, explain antigen- antibody reactions. 42. What is erythroblastosis fetalis? What causes it? CHAPTER What is the function of the lymphatic system? How it it like and unlike the circulatory system? 2. Describe the structure of a lymph node. What are their functions? 3. List the major lymphatic organs in the human body. 4. Explain what is meant by nonspecific defense mechanisms ( innate immunity) 5. Understand how the skin is involved in immunity. 6. How do mucus membranes and secretions play a role in immunity? 7. Define phagocytosis and list two types of phagocytic cells derived from white blood cells, 8. Understand the role of toll-like receptors in phagocytosis. 9. Explain how the function of natural killer cells differs from the function of phagocytes. 10. Describe the inflammatory response including how it is triggered. 11. What is the role of interferon in the innate immune response? 12. Explain how complement proteins may be activated and how they function. 13. Outline the development of B and T cells from stem cells in the bone marrow 14. Characterize antigen molecules, in general, and explain how a single antigen molecule may stimulate the immune system to produce several different antibodies molecules. 15. Describe the antigen receptors on B and T cells. How are they alike and how are they different? 16. What are MHC markers? What is the difference between MHC class I and II? 17. Describe the mechanism of clonal selection.

7 18. Be able to describe in detail the humoral immune response. Be sure and know what activates it. 19. How are helper T cells involved in the humoral immune response? 20. What are the roles of CD4 and CD8 proteins? 21. Distinguish between a primary and secondary response. 22. What is the cellular basis for immunological memory? 23. Draw an antibody molecule and label all parts. 24. List the five major classes of antibodies and what they do. 25. Distinguish between active and passive immunity. 26. How do we explain antibody diversity? 27. Once antibodies attach to their antigen, how does the body render the invader inactive? 28. Explain how T cell receptors recognize self and nonself? 29. What cells are antigen presenting cells? How do they work? 30. Describe in detail cell mediated immunity. 31. What are the roles of cytokines in immunity? 32. Be able to describe the following autoimmune diseases A. Rheumatoid arthritis B. Rheumatic heart disease C. Lupus D. Graves disease 33. Describe an allergic reaction including the role of IgE, mast cells, and histamine. 34. Explain what causes anaphylactic shock. 35. Recall the infectious agent that causes AIDS and explain how it weakens the immune system.

8 CHAPTER Categorize chemical signals in terms of the proximity of the communicating cells. 2. Describe the nature of a ligand-receptor interaction and state how such interactions initiate a signal transduction system. 3. Compare and contrast G- protein linked receptors, tyrosine-kinase receptors, and ligand gated ion channels. 4. What is the role of amplification and phosphorylation in cell communication? 5. Compare and contrast the second messengers, camp and inositol triphosphate. 6., Understand the concentration of Ca ions in signal transduction. Describe how target cells discriminate among signals and how the same signal can elicit multiple cellular responses. 7. Understand apoptosis. CHAPTER Describe the mechanism of the polypeptide hormone action. Give examples. 2. Describe the mechanism of steroid hormone action and explain the location and role of steroid hormone receptors. Where are the steroid hormones produced? 3. Explain how to account for specificity in target cell response to hormone signals. 4. Discuss the posterior pituitary. Include in your answer the relation to the hypothalamus. 5. List all hormones associated with the posterior pituitary and what each does. 6. Discuss the anterior pituitary. How is its relationship with the hypothalamus different from the posterior pituitary? 7. Define tropic hormones. List all hormones associated with the anterior pituitary and specify whether they are tropic, nontropic or both. Include in your answer the functions of each.

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