Moral)Development) Three)Stage)Theory)by)Lawrence$Kohlberg)

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1 Moral)Development) Kohlberg)(1981,)1984))sought)to) describe)the)development)of) moral)reasoning)by)posing)moral) dilemmas)to)children)and) adolescents,)such)as) Should)a) person)steal)medicine)to)save)a) loved)one s)life? )He)found) stages)of)moral)development.) Three)Stage)Theory)by)Lawrence$Kohlberg)

2 Pre:conven&onal)Morality) Morality)based)on) rewards)and) punishments.) If)you)are)rewarded) then)it)is)ok.) If)you)are)punished,)the) act)must)be)wrong.)

3 Conven&onal)Morality) Look)at)morality)based)on) how)others)see)you.) If)your)peers)or)society) thinks)it)is)wrong,)then)so) do)you.)

4 Post:Conven&onal)Morality) Based)on)self:defined) ethical)principles.) Your)own)personal)set) of)ethics.)

5 Cri&cisms)of)Kohlberg) Heinz)Example)of)Morality) Carol)Gilligan)pointed) out)that)kohlberg)only) tested)boys.) Overall,)males)tend)to) have)a)more)absolute) value)of)morality.) Many)females)tend)to) consider)situa&onal) factors)in)moral) decision)making.)

6 Death Elizabeth)Kubler:Ross s) Stages$of$Death/Grief.$ 1.Denial$ 2.Anger$ 3.Bargaining$ 4.Depression$ 5.Acceptance$

7 Sensa&on)and)Percep&on) Sensa&on:)detecting(physical(energy() Percep&on:)selec&ng,)organizing)&)interpre&ng) sensory)informa&on) ) 6:8%)of)the)exam)

8 Bo^om:Up)Processing) Also)called)feature) analysis.) We)use)the)features)on) the)object)itself)to)build) a)percep&on.) Takes)longer)that)top: down)but)is)more) accurate.) ) Click)to)see)an)example)of) bo^om) up)processing.))

9 Top:Down)Processing) We)perceive)by)filling)the) gaps)in)what)we)sense.) I)_ant)ch_co_ate)ic_) cr_am.) Based)on)our)experiences) and)schemas.) If)you)see)many)old)men) in)glasses,)you)are)more) apt)to)process)a)picture)of) an)old)man)(even)when) you)may)be)in)error).)

10 Psychophysics2 A(study(of(the(relationship(between(physical( characteristics(of(stimuli(and(our(psychological( experience(with(them. 2 2 Physical(World2 Light2 Psychological( World2 Brightness2 Sound2 Pressure2 Sugar2 Volume2 Weight2 Sweet2 166)

11 Detection2 Absolute2 Threshold2 No2 Intensity2 No2 No2 Yes2 Observer s Response Detected2 Yes2 Tell$when$you$(the$observer)$detect$the$light.7

12 Signal)Detec&on)theory) The)detec&on)of)a)s&mulus) depends)on)the)intensity)of) the)s&mulus)and)the) physical)&)mental)state)of) the)individual.) Absolute)thresholds)are)not) really)absolute.) Things)like)mo&va&on)or) physical)state)can)effect) what)we)sense.) False)Posi&ves) False)Nega&ves)

13 Subliminal)Messages) Do)you)hear) Ah,$see$me.$ I'm$not$too$ young?) Do)you)hear) "Now$he$ uses$ marijuana.?) Do)you)hear)Pass$the$ Do)you)hear"Play$backwards.$Hear$ gun$now.$it$kills$the$ words$sung.?) love,$the$love$is$cold?) S&muli)below)our) absolute)threshold.) Backmasking) 25 th )frame) Do)Subliminal)Messages) work?) Probably)a)placebo) effect)

14 Difference(Threshold2 Difference(Threshold:(Minimum(difference( between(two(stimuli(required(for(detection(50%( of(the(time,(also(called(just(noticeable(difference( (JND).) Difference2 Threshold2 No2 No2 Yes2 Observer s Response Tell$when$you$(observer)$detect$a$difference$in$the$light.7 170)

15 ) )(Just)Notable)Difference)) Difference)Threshold) The)smallest)amount)of)change)needed)to)detect)in)a)s&mulus)before)we)detect)a)change.))) )

16 Weber s(law2 Two(stimuli(must(differ(by(a(constant(minimum( percentage((rather(than(a(constant(amount),(to(be( perceived(as(different.(weber(fraction:(k(=(δi/i. 2 Computes)the)Just)No&ceable)Difference.) Stimulus2 2 Constant((k)2 Light2 8%2 Weight2 2%2 Tone2 3%2

17 Sensory)Adapta&on) Decreased) responsiveness)to) s&muli)due)to)constant) s&mula&on.) Do)you)feel)your)underwear)all)day?)

18 Cocktail:party)phenomenon) The)cocktail$party$effect) describes)the)ability)to) focus)one's)listening) a^en&on)on)a)single)talker) among)a)mixture)of) conversa&ons)and) background)noises,) ignoring)other) conversa&ons.) Form)of)selec&ve)a^en&on.)

19 InaYentional(Blindness! InaYentional(blindness(refers(to(the(inability( to(see(an(object(or(a(person(in(our(midst.( Simmons(&(Chabris((1999)(showed(that(half( of(the(observers(failed(to(see(the(gorilla] suited(assistant(in(a(ball(passing(game.( 2 Daniel Simons, University of Illinois

20 Transduc&on) Transforming)signals) into)neural)impulses.) Informa&on)goes)from) the)senses)to)the) thalamus),)then)to)the) various)areas)in)the) brain.) Remember)Ethan)in)Sky)High.))He)changes)his) body)to)slime.))solid)form)to)liquid)form.))) Change)from)one)form)of)energy)to)another.)) Click)the)picture)to)watch)power)placement.))

21 Parts(of(the(eye2 1. Cornea:(Transparent(tissue(where(light(enters( the(eye.2 2. Iris:(Muscle(that(expands(and(contracts(to( change(the(size(of(the(opening((pupil)(for(light.2 3. Lens:(Focuses(the(light(rays(on(the(retina.2 4. Retina:(Contains(sensory(receptors(that(process( visual(information(and(sends(it(to(the(brain.2 179)

22 The(Lens2 Lens:((Transparent( structure(behind(the( pupil(that(changes(shape( to(focus(images(on(the( retina. 2 2 Accommodation:(The( process(by(which(the( eye s(lens(changes( shape(to(help(focus(near( or(far(objects(on(the( retina )

23 Retina2 Retina:(The(light] sensitive(inner( surface(of(the(eye,( containing(receptor( rods(and(cones(in( addition(to(layers(of( other(neurons( (bipolar,(ganglion( cells)(that(process( visual(information )

24 Optic(Nerve,(Blind(Spot(&(Fovea2 Optic(nerve:(Carries(neural(impulses(from(the(eye(to(the( brain.(blind(spot:(point(where(the(optic(nerve(leaves(the( eye(because(there(are(no(receptor(cells(located(there.((this( creates(a(blind(spot.(fovea:(central(point(in(the(retina( around(which(the(eye s(cones(cluster )

25 Transduc&on)Con&nued) Order)is)Rods/Cones)to) Bipolar)to)Ganglion)to)Op&c) Nerve.) Sends)info)to)thalamus:) area)called)lateral$ geniculate$nucleus$(lgn).) Then)sent)to)cerebral) cortexes.) Where)the)op&c)nerves) cross)is)called)the)opdc$ chiasm.)

26 )Vision)in)the)Brain) We)have)specific)cells)that)see)the) lines,)mo&on,)curves)and)other) features)of)this)turkey.))these)cells) are)called)feature)detectors.) Goes)to)the)Visual) Cortex)located)in)the) Occipital)Lobe)of)the) Cerebral)Cortex.) Feature)Detectors.) Parallel)Processing)vs) Serial)Processing)

27 Feature(Detectors2 Nerve(cells(in(the(visual(cortex(respond(to( specific(features,(such(as(edges,(angles,(and( movement.2 Ross Kinnaird/ Allsport/ Getty Images 185)

28 Visual(Information(Processing2 Processing(of(several(aspects(of(the(stimulus( simultaneously(is(called(parallel(processing.(the( brain(divides(a(visual(scene(into(subdivisions(such( as(color,(depth,(form(and(movement(etc )

29 Color)Vision) Two Major Theories

30 Trichroma&c)Theory) Three)types)of)cones:) Red) Blue) Green) These)three)types)of) cones)can)make)millions) of)combina&ons)of) colors.) Does)not)explain) aperimages)or)color) blindness)well.)

31 Color(Blindness2 Genetic(disorder(in(which(people(are(blind(to( green(or(red(colors.((this(supports(the( Trichromatic(theory. 2 Ishihara(Test2 189)

32 Opponent:Process)theory) The)sensory)receptors) come)in)pairs.) Red/Green) Yellow/Blue) Black/White) If)one)color)is) s&mulated,)the)other)is) inhibited.)

33 Constancy) Objects)change)in)our) eyes)constantly)as)we) or)they)move.but)we) are)able)to)maintain) content)percep&on) Shape)Constancy) Size)Constancy)

34 Hearing) Our auditory sense (audition)

35 We)hear)sound)WAVES) The)height)of)the)wave)gives)us)the)amplitude)of)the) sound.) The)frequency)of)the)wave)gives)us)the)pitch)if)the)sound.)

36 The)Ear)

37 Transduc&on)in)the)ear) Sound)waves)hit)the)eardrum)then) anvil$then)hammer)then)sdrrup)then) oval$window.) Everything)is)just)vibra&ng.) Then)the)cochlea)vibrates.) The)cochlea)is)lined)with)mucus) called)basilar$membrane.) In)basilar$membrane$there)are)hair) cells.) When)hair)cells)vibrate)they)turn) vibra&ons)into)neural)impulses)which) are)called)organ$of$cord.) Sent)then)to)thalamus)up)auditory) nerve.) It)is)all)about)the)vibra&ons!!!)

38 Place)Theory) Different)hairs)vibrate) in)the)cochlea)when) they)different)pitches.) So)some)hairs)vibrate) when)they)hear)high) and)other)vibrate)when) they)hear)low)pitches.)

39 Frequency)Theory) All)the)hairs)vibrate)but) at)different)speeds.) ) )

40 Touch) Receptors)located)in)our)skin.) Gate)Control)Theory)of)Pain) Why)do)thoughts)and) emo&ons)and)touch) influence)pain)percep&on?)

41 Taste) We)have)bumps)on)our) tongue)called)papillae.) Taste)buds)are)located) on)the)papillae)(they) are)actually)all)over)the) mouth).) Sweet,)salty,)sour)and) bi^er.)

42 Taste2 Traditionally,(taste(sensations(consisted(of(sweet,( salty,(sour,(and(biyer(tastes.(recently,(receptors(for( a(fifth(taste(have(been(discovered(called( Umami.! Sweet Sour Salty Bitter Umami (Fresh Chicken) 200)

43 Smell(and(Memories2 The(brain(region(for( smell((in(red)(is(closely( connected(with(the( brain(regions(involved( with(memory((limbic( system).(that(is(why( strong(memories(are( made(through(the(sense( of(smell.2 201)

44 Sensory(Interaction2 When(one(sense(affects(another(sense,(sensory( interaction(takes(place.(so,(the(taste(of(strawberry( interacts(with(its(smell(and(its(texture(on(the( tongue(to(produce(flavor.2! This*is*why*food*isn t*delicious*when*we*have*a*cold.!

45 Ves&bular)Sense) Tells)us)where)our)body) is)oriented)in)space.) Our)sense)of)balance.) Located)in)our) semicircular)canals)in) our)ears.)

46 Kinesthe&c)Sense) Tells)us)where)our)body) parts)are.) Receptors)located)in) our)muscles)and)joints.) Without)the)kinesthe&c)sense)you) could)not)touch)the)bu^on)to)make) copies)of)your)bu^ocks.)

47 Percep&on) The)process)of)organizing)and)interpre&ng) informa&on,)enabling)us)to)recognize)meaningful) objects)and)events.)

48 Gestalt)Psychology) Gestalt)psychologists)focused)on) how)we)group)objects)together.) We)innately)look)at)things)in)groups) and)not)as)isolated)elements.) Proximity)(group)objects)that)are) close)together)as)being)part)of)same) group)) Similarity)(objects)similar)in) appearance)are)perceived)as)being) part)of)same)group)) ConDnuity)(objects)that)form)a) con&nuous)form)are)perceived)as) same)group)) Closure$(like)top:down)processing we)fill)gaps)in)if)we)can)recognize)it))

49 Grouping2 After(distinguishing(the(figure(from(the(ground,( our(perception(needs(to(organize(the(figure(into( a(meaningful(form(using(grouping(rules.2 217)

50 Binocular)Cues) We)need)both)of)our) eyes)to)use)these)cues.) ReDnal$Disparity$(as)an) object)comes)closer)to)us,) the)differences)in)images) between)our)eyes) becomes)greater.) Convergence)(as)an) object)comes)closer)our) eyes)have)to)come) together)to)keep)focused) on)the)object).)

51 Monocular(Cues2 Relative(Size:(If(two(objects(are(similar(in(size,(we( perceive(the(one(that(casts(a(smaller(retinal(image( to(be(farther(away )

52 Monocular(Cues2 Size(Constancy2 Stable(size(perception(amid(changing(size(of(the( stimuli. 2 Size(Constancy2 220)

53 Schemas2 Schemas(are(concepts(that(organize(and( interpret(unfamiliar(information.2 Courtesy of Anna Elizabeth Voskuil Childrenfs(schemas(represent(reality(as(well(as(their( abilities(to(represent(what(they(see.2 221)

54 States)of)Consciousness) 2:4%)of)the)exam)

55 Sleep)is)a)state)of) consciousness.) We)are)less)aware)of) our)surroundings.) Circadian)Rhythm) Sleep)

56 Sleep)Disorders)

57 Insomnia) Persistent)problems) falling)asleep) Affects)10%)of)the) popula&on) Primary)versus) Secondary)Insomnia)

58 Narcolepsy) Click))above)to)see)Skeeter)the)narcolep&c)dog.) Suffer)from) sleeplessness)and)may) fall)asleep)at) unpredictable)or) inappropriate)&mes.) Directly)into)REM)sleep) Less)than).001)%)of) popula&on.)

59 A)person)stops) breathing)during)their) sleep.) Wake)up)momentarily,) gasps)for)air,)then)falls) back)asleep.) Very)common,) especially)in)heavy) males.) Can)be)fatal.) Sleep)Apnea)

60 Somnambulism) Sleep)Walking) Most)open)occurs) during)the)first)few) hours)of)sleeping)and)in) stage)4)(deep)sleep).) If)you)have)had)night) terrors,)you)are)more) likely)to)sleep)walk) when)older.)

61 Sleep)Cycle)) Click)to)see)an) awake)brain.)) Click)dude)for)alpha) Waves.) Use)an)EEG)machine)to) measure)stages)of) sleep.) When)you)are)the)onset) of)sleep)you)experience) alpha)waves.) Produces)mild) hallucina&ons,)like)a) feeling)of)falling.)

62 Stage)1) Kind)of)awake)and)kind) of)asleep.) Only)lasts)a)few) minutes,)and)you) usually)only)experience) it)once)a)night.) Your)brain)produces) Theta)Waves.) Click)the)couple)to)see)Theta)Waves)

63 Stage)2) Click)image)to)see)Stage)Two)of)sleep.) More)Theta)Waves)that)get) progressively)slower.) Begin)to)show)sleep$spindles short$bursts)of)rapid)brain)waves.)

64 REM)Sleep) Click)boy)dreaming)to)see)REM)sleep.) Rapid)Eye)Movement) Open)called)paradoxical) sleep.) Brain)is)very)ac&ve.) Dreams)usually)occur)in) REM.) Body)is)essen&ally) paralyzed.) REM)Rebound)

65 Dreams)

66 Ac&va&on:Synthesis)Theory) Our)Cerebral)Cortex)is) trying)to)interpret)random) electrical)ac&vity)we)have) while)sleeping.) That)is)why)dreams) some&mes)make)no)sense.) The)person s)brain)is) weaving)the)stories,)which) helps)us)understand)that) person.)

67 Informa&on:Processing)Theory) Dreams)are)a)way)to)deal) with)the)stresses)of) everyday)life)and) consolidate)our)memories) We)tend)to)dream)more) when)we)are)more) stressed.) Why)do)we)dream)about) what)we ve)never) experienced?)) People)who)don t)get)sleep) have)poorer)memories.)))

68 Freud s)theory)of)dreams) Dreams)are)a)roadway) into)our)unconscious.) They)express)otherwise) unacceptable)feelings.) Manifest)Content) (storyline)) Latent)Content) (underlying)meaning)) Problem:)no)scien&fic) support,)can)interpret) different)ways))

69 Physiological)Func&oning) REM)sleep)s&mulates) the)brain,)developing) and)preserving)neural) pathways)that)cement) memories.))) Then)why)do)we) experience)meaningful) dreams?)))

70 Cogni&ve)Theory) Dream)content)reflects) dreamers )cogni&ve) development)(their) knowledge)and) understanding)) Doesn t)address)the) purpose)of)dreams))

71 Hypnosis) Altered)state)of) consciousness?) Posthypno&c)sugges&on) Posthypno&c)amnesia)

72 Hypno&c)Theories) Role$Theory$ Hypnosis)is)NOT)an)altered) state)of)consciousness.) Different)people)have) various)state)of)hypno&c) sugges&bility.) A)social)phenomenon) where)people)want)to) believe.) Work)be^er)on)people)with) richer)fantasy)lives.) State$Theory$ Hypnosis)is)an)altered)state) of)consciousness.) Drama&c)health)benefits) It)works)for)pain)best.)

73 Drugs)

74 Our)brain)is)protected) by)a)layer)of)capillaries) called)the)bloodqbrain$ barrier.) The)drugs)that)are)small) enough)to)pass)through) are)called)psychoac&ve) drugs.) Drugs)

75 S&mulants) Speed)up)body) processes.) More)powerful)ones) (like)cocaine))give) people)feelings)of) invincibility.)

76 Depressants) Slows)down)body) processes.) Alcohol) Anxioly&cs) (barbiturates)and) tranquilizers))

77 Hallucinogens) Psychedelics) Causes)changes)in) percep&ons)of) reality) LSD,)peyote,)) psilocybin) mushrooms)and) marijuana.) Reverse)tolerance) or)synergis&c)effect) )

78 Opiates) Has)depressive)and) hallucinogenic)quali&es.) Agonist)for)endorphins.)) Derived)from)poppy)plant.) Morphine,)heroin,) methadone)and)codeine.) All)these)drugs)cross)the) placental) barrier.teratogens.)

79 Learning) Long)las&ng)change)in) behavior)due)to) experience.) ) 7:9%)of)the)exam)

80 Ivan)Pavlov) Studied)diges&on)in) dogs.) Dogs)salivated) before)they)were) given)food) (triggered)by) sounds,)lights)etc )) Dogs)must)have) LEARNED)to)salivate.) Classical)Condi&oning)

81 Classical)Condi&oning) This)is)passive)learning) (automa&c learner)does) NOT)have)to)think).) First)thing)you)need)is)a) uncondi&onal) rela&onship.) UncondiDonal$SDmulus$ (UCS):)something)that) elicits)a)natural,)reflexive) response.) UncondiDonal$Response$ (UCR):)response)to)the) UCS.) )

82 Classical)Condi&oning) Next)you)find)a)neutral)s&mulus)(something)that) by)itself))elicits)no)response).) You)present)the)s&mulus)with)the)UCS)a)whole) bunch)of)&mes.)

83 Classical)Condi&oning) Aper)a)while,)the)body) begins)to)link)together) the)neutral)s&mulus) with)the)ucs.) Acquisi&on) )

84 Classical)Condi&oning) We)know)learning)takes) places)when)the)previously) neutral)s&mulus)elicits)a) response.) At)this)point)the)neutral) s&mulus)is)called)the) condidoned$sdmulus$(cs)$ and)the)uncondi&onal) response)becomes)the) condidoned$response$ (CR).$$

85 Classical)Condi&oning) TRICKY)FACT:)learning) exists)because)the)cs)is) linked)to)the)ucs.) This)is)called) ACQUISITION.) Acquisi&on)does)not) last)forever.) The)moment)the)CS)is) no)longer)associated) with)the)ucs,)we)have) EXTINCTION.)

86 Spontaneous)Recovery) Some&mes,)aper) ex&nc&on,)the)cr)s&ll) randomly)appears)aper) the)cs)is)presented.)

87 Generaliza&on)and)Discrimina&on) Something)is)so)similar)to)the) CS)that)you)get)a)CR.) Something)so)different)from)the) CS)that)you)do)not)get)a)CR.)

88 First:Order)and)Second:Order)Condi&oning) First)Order)Condi&oning.) ) Bell)+)meat)=)saliva&on.) ))) Bell)=)Saliva&on.) Second$Order$CondiDoning$ aka)higher$order$ CondiDoning$ (Aper)first)order) condi&oning)has)occurred)) $ Light)+)Bell)=)Saliva&on.) Light)=)Saliva&on.)

89 Biological)Predisposi&ons) Garcia)showed)that)the)dura&on) between)the)cs)and)the)us)may)be)long) (hours),)but)yet)result)in)condi&oning.)a) biologically)adap&ve)cs)(taste))led)to) condi&oning)and)not)to)others)(light)or) sound).)) John)Garcia)

90 Garcia)and)Koelling)Study) Studied)rats)and)how) they)make)associa&ons.) Some)associa&ons)seem) to)be)adap&ve.) CS$ UCS$ Learned$Response$ Loud)Noise) Shock) Fear) Loud)Noise) Radia&on)(nausea)) Nothing) Sweet)Water) Shock) Nothing) Sweet)Water) Radia&on)(nausea)) Avoid)Water)

91 Learned)Taste)Aversions) When)it)comes)to) food)being)paired) with)sickness,)the) condi&oning)is) incredible)strong.) Even)when)food)and) sickness)are)hours) apart.) Food)must)be)salient) (no&ceable.)) This)type)of)Classical) Condi&oning)is)also) known)as)aversive$ CondiDoning)=)using) punishment)to)stop) an)unwanted) behavior.))

92 Operant)Condi&oning) The)Learner)is)NOT)passive.) Learning)based)on)consequence)

93 The)Law)of)Effect) Edward)Thorndike) Locked)cats)in)a)cage) Behavior)changes)because)of) its)consequences.) Rewards)strengthen)behavior.) If)consequences)are) unpleasant,)the)s&mulus: Reward)connec&on)will) weaken.) Called)the)whole)process) instrumental$learning.)

94 The)Mac)Daddy)of) Operant)Condi&oning.) Nurture)guy)through) and)through.) Used)a)Skinner)Box) (Operant)Condi&oning) Chamber))to)prove)his) concepts.) B.F.)Skinner)

95 How)do)we)actually)use)Operant) Condi&oning?) Do)we)wait)for)the)subject) to)deliver)the)desired) behavior?) Some&mes,)we)use)a) process)called)shaping.) Shaping)is)reinforcing)small) steps)on)the)way)to)the) desired)behavior.) ) To)train)a)dog)to)get)your) slippers,)you)would)have)to) reinforce)him)in)small) steps.))first,)to)find)the) slippers.))then)to)put)them) in)his)mouth.))then)to)bring) them)to)you)and)so)on this) is)shaping)behavior.) To)get)Barry)to)become)a)be^er)student,)you)need)to) do)more)than)give)him)a)massage)when)he)gets)good) grades.))you)have)to)give)him)massages)when)he) studies)for)ten)minutes,)or)for)when)he)completes)his) homework.))small)steps)to)get)to)the)desired) behavior.))

96 Chaining)Behaviors) Subjects)are)taught)a) number)of)responses) successively)in)order)to) get)a)reward.) Click)picture)to)see)a)rat)chaining)behaviors.) Click)to)see)a)cool)example)of)chaining)behaviors.)

97 Reinforces) A)reinforcer)is)anything)the) INCREASES)a)behavior.) PosiDve$Reinforcement:$ The)addi&on)of)something) pleasant.) NegaDve$Reinforcement:$ The)removal)of)something) unpleasant.) Two)types)of)NR) Escape)Learning) Avoidance)Learning) (Gecng)kicked)out)of)class) versus)skipping)class))

98 Primary)v.)Secondary)Reinforcers) Primary$Reinforcer$ Things)that)are)in) themselves)rewarding.) Secondary$Reinforcer$ Things)we)have)learned)to)value.) Money)is)a)special)secondary) reinforcer)called)a)generalized$ reinforcer$(because)it)can)be) traded)for)just)about)anything))

99 Token)Economy) Every)&me)a)desired) behavior)is)performed,)a) token)is)given.) They)can)trade)tokens)in) for)a)variety)of)prizes) (reinforcers)) Used)in)homes,)prisons,) mental)ins&tu&ons)and) schools.)

100 Reinforcement)Schedules) How)open)to)you)give)the)reinforcer?) Every)&me)or)just)some&mes?) ) ) )

101 Con&nuous)v.)Par&al)Reinforcement) ConDnuous$ Reinforce)the)behavior) EVERYTIME)the)behavior)is) exhibited.) Usually)done)when)the) subject)is)first)learning)to) make)the)associa&on.) Acquisi&on)comes)really)fast.) But)so)does)ex&nc&on.) ParDal$ Reinforce)the)behavior)only) SOME)of)the)&mes)it)is) exhibited.) Acquisi&on)comes)more) slowly.) But)is)more)resistant)to) ex&nc&on.) FOUR)types)of)Par&al) Reinforcement)schedules.)

102 Ra&o)Schedules) Fixed$RaDo$ Provides)a)reinforcement) aper)a)set)number)of) responses.) Variable$RaDo$ Provides)a)reinforcement) aper)a)random)number)of) responses.) Very)hard)to)get)acquisi&on) but)also)very)resistant)to) ex&nc&on.) Fixed)Ra&on:)She)gets)a)manicure)for)every)5) pounds)she)loses.)

103 Interval)Schedules) Fixed$Interval$ Requires)a)SET)amount)of) &me)to)elapse)before)giving) the)reinforcement.) Variable$Interval$ Requires)a)RANDOM) amount)of)&me)to)elapse) before)giving)the) reinforcement.) Very)hard)to)get)acquisi&on) but)also)very)resistant)to) ex&nc&on.) Fixed)Interval:)She)gets)a) manicure)for)every)7)days)she) stays)on)her)diet.))

104 Punishment) Meant)to)decrease)a)behavior.) ) PosiDve$Punishment$ Addi&on)of)something) unpleasant.) NegaDve$Punishment$ (Omission(Training)( Removal)of)something) pleasant.) Punishment)works)best)when) it)is)immediately)done)aper) behavior)and)if)it)is)harsh!)

105 Latent)Leaning) Edward)Toleman) Three)rat)experiment.) Latent)means)hidden.) Some&mes)learning)is) not)immediately) evident.) Rats)needed)a)reason)to) display)what)they)have) learned.)

106 Observa&onal)Learning) Albert)Bandura)and)his) BoBo)Doll) We)learn)through) modeling)behavior)from) others.) Observa&onal)learning)+) Operant)Condi&oning)=) Social$Learning$Theory$ Click)pic)to)see)some)observa&onal)learning.)

107 Mirror)Neurons) Neuroscien&sts)discovered)mirror)neurons)in)the) brains)of)animals)and)humans)that)are)ac&ve)during) observa&onal)learning.)

108 Insight)Learning) Wolfgang)Kohler)and) his)chimpanzees.) Some)animals)learn) through)the) ah)ha ) experience.) Click)pic)to)see)insight)learning.)

109 Memory,)Thinking,)and)Language) $ 8:10%)of)the) exam)

110 Flashbulb)Memory) A)unique)and)highly)emo&onal)moment)may)give)rise)to) a)clear,)strong,)and)persistent)memory)called)flashbulb) memory.)however,)this)memory)is)not)free)from)errors.) Ruters/)Corbis) President)Bush)being)told)of)9/11)a^ack.)

111 The)Memory)Process) Three)step)process.) ) 1. Encoding:)The) processing)of) informa&on)into)the) memory)system.) 2. Storage:)The)reten&on) of)encoded)material) over)&me.) 3. Retrieval:)The)process) of)gecng)the) informa&on)out)of) memory)storage.)

112 A)split)second) holding)tank)for)all) sensory)informa&on.) Sperling s)research) on)iconic)memory) Echoic)Memory) Sensory)Memory)

113 Working)Memory) The)stuff)we)encode)from) the)sensory)goes)to) working)memory.) Events)are)encoded) visually,)acous&cally)or) seman&cally.) Holds)about)7)(plus)or) minus)2))items)for)about) 20)seconds.) We)recall)digits)be^er) than)le^ers.) Short)Term)Memory)Ac&vity) )

114 Long)Term)Memory) Unlimited)storehouse)of) informa&on.) Explicit)(declara&ve)) memories) Implicit)(non: declara&ve))memories)

115 Automa&c)Processing) We)process)an)enormous)amount)of)informa&on) effortlessly,)such)as)the)following:)) 1. Space:)While)reading)a)textbook,)you) automa&cally)encode)the)place)of)a)picture)on)a) page.) 2. Time:)We)uninten&onally)note)the)events)that) take)place)in)a)day.) 3. Frequency:)You)effortlessly)keep)track)of)things) that)happen)to)you.) 297)

116 EfforÄul)Processing) Commicng)novel) informa&on)to)memory) requires)effort)just)like) learning)a)concept)from) a)textbook.)such) processing)leads)to) durable)and)accessible) memories.) ) Elaborate)Rehearsal) Maintenance)Rehearsal) Spencer)Grant/)Photo)Edit)

117 Rehearsal) EfforÄul)learning)usually) requires)rehearsal)or) conscious)repe&&on.)) ) Ebbinghaus)studied) rehearsal)by)using) nonsense)syllables:)tuv) YOF)GEK)XOZ) Hermann)Ebbinghaus) (1850:1909)) h^p:// 299)

118 Ways)to)remember)things)in)Working) Memory so)they)go)to)ltm) Chunking:)Organizing) items)into)familiar,) manageable)units.) Mnemonic$devices$ Rehearsal$ OrganizaDon/categories$$ 1:4:9:2:1:7:7:6:1:8:1:2:1:9:4:1) "Mary)Very)Easily)Makes)Jam) Saturday)Unless)No)Plums."))

119 Hierarchy) Complex)informa&on)broken)down)into) broad)concepts)and)further)subdivided)into) categories)and)subcategories.) Grocery)list)=)) 3)meat)items)(turkey,) ground)beef,)pepperoni))) 2)bread)items)(sandwich) bread,)tor&llas))) 4)dairy)items)(milk,) cheese,)yogurt,)sour) cream))

120 Primacy$Effect$(the)first) items)presented)in)a) series)to)be)remembered) be^er)or)more)easily))$ Recency$Effect$(the)most) recently)presented)items) or)experiences)will)most) likely)be)remembered) best))$ Serial$PosiDoning$Effect$ (When)your)recall)is) be^er)for)first)and)last) items)on)a)list,)but)poor) for)middle)items.)$ Encoding)Informa&on)

121 Next:in:line:Effect:)You) are)so)anxious)about) being)next)that)you)can t) remember)what)the) person)just)before)you)in) line)says,)but)you)can) recall)what)other)people) around)you)say.)) Spacing)Effect:)We)retain) informa&on)be^er)when) we)rehearse)over)&me.) Memory)Effects)

122 Storing)Implicit)&)Explicit)Memories) Explicit)Memory)refers)to)facts)and)experiences)that)one)can) consciously)know)and)declare.)implicit)memory)involves) learning)an)ac&on)while)the)individual)does)not)know)or) declare)what)she)knows.) 304)

123 Anterograde)Amnesia) Aper)losing)his)hippocampus)in)surgery,)pa&ent)Henry) M.)(HM))remembered)everything)before)the)opera&on) but)cannot)make)new)memories.)we)call)this) anterograde)amnesia.) Anterograde) Amnesia) (HM) Memory$Intact$ No$New$Memories$ Surgery$ 305)

124 Anterograde)Amnesia)&)Implicit)Memory) HM)is)unable)to)make)new)memories)that)are) declara&ve)(explicit),)but)he)can)form)new) memories)that)are)procedural)(implicit).) A$ B$ HM)learned)the)Tower)of)Hanoi)(game))aper)his)surgery.)Each)&me)he)plays) it,)he)is)unable)to)remember)the)fact)that)he)has)already)played)the)game.) C$ 306)

125 Storing)Memories) Long$TermQPotenDaDon$ long:las&ng)enhancement) in)signal)transmission) between)two)neurons)that) results)from)s&mula&ng) them)synchronously.) In)other)words they)learn) to)fire)together)and)get) be^er)at)it crea&ng)a) memory.)

126 Recall)Versus)Recogni&on) Recall$ You)must)retrieve)the) informa&on)from)your) memory)) Ex:)fill:in:the)blank)or)essay) tests) RecogniDon$ You)must)iden&fy)the)target) from)possible)targets) Ex:)mul&ple:choice)tests)

127 Priming) To)retrieve)a)specific)memory)from)the)web)of)associa&ons,) you)must)first)ac&vate)one)of)the)strands)that)leads)to)it.)this) process)is)called)priming.)

128 Déja)Vu) Déja)Vu)means) I've)experienced)this)before. )Cues)from)the) current)situa&on)may)unconsciously)trigger)retrieval)of)an) earlier)similar)experience.)(you)were)primed)and)you)didn t) realize)it.)) ) The New Yorker Collection, Leo Cullum from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved 310)

129 The)Context)Ma^ers) Flashbulb)Memories) Mood)Congruent) Memory) State)Dependent) Memory)

130 ) RetroacDve$ Interference:)new) informa&on)blocks)out) old)informa&on.) ) ) ProacDve$Interference:) old)informa&on)blocks) out)new)informa&on.) Forgecng) Gecng)a)new)bus)number)and) forgecng)old)bus)number.) Calling)your)new) girlfriend)by)old) girlfriends)name.)

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