Human Anatomy & Physiology C H A P T E R
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1 PowerPoint Lecture Slides prepared by Barbara Heard, Atlantic Cape Community College Ninth Edition Human Anatomy & Physiology C H A P T E R 2 Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
2 An Introduction to the Chemical Level of Organization Chemistry Why review it? Don t fear it
3 Atoms and Atomic Structure Matter Is made up of atoms ok what makes up atoms?
4 Figure 2-1 The Structure of Hydrogen Atoms Electron shell Hydrogen-1 mass number: 1 Hydrogen-2, Hydrogen-3, deuterium tritium mass number: 2 mass number: 3 There can be different versions of an element -isotopes -so? who cares?... Glucose- 13 C
5 Figure 2-2 The Arrangement of Electrons into Energy Levels Atoms have electron layers called shells 1 st Level: max of 2 electrons Hydrogen, H Helium, He
6 Figure 2-2 The Arrangement of Electrons into Energy Levels 2nd Level: max of 8 electrons Can Li add more? Yes Can Ne add more? Not if it can avoid it Lithium, Li Neon, Ne Why does this matter? give a little, take a little
7 Molecules and Compounds Chemical Bonds Three major types of chemical bonds 1. Ionic bonds like a bad relationship 2. Covalent bonds like a nice relationship 3. Hydrogen bonds like a crazy, wild, many-partners relationship :s
8 Figure 2-3a The Formation of Ionic Bonds Formation of ions Sodium atom Attraction between opposite charges Sodium ion (Na + ) Formation of an ionic compound Chlorine atom Chloride ion (Cl - ) Sodium chloride (NaCl)
9 Figure 2-3b The Formation of Ionic Bonds Chloride ions (Cl - ) Sodium ions (Na + )
10 Molecules and Compounds Covalent Bonds sharing of electrons (2 types) Nonpolar covalent bonds equal sharing of electrons Polar covalent bonds unequal sharing of electrons One atom pulls harder
11 Figure 2-5 Polar Covalent Bonds and the Structure of Water Hydrogen atom Hydrogen atom Oxygen atom + +
12 Molecules and Compounds Hydrogen Bonds Bonds between adjacent molecules, not atoms
13 Molecules and Compounds Phosphate Sugar: Deoxyribose Base: Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Sugar Phosphate Adenine nucleotide Thymine nucleotide Hydrogen bond Sugarphosphate backbone Deoxyribose sugar Phosphate Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) 2013 Inc.
14 Chemical Reactions SO???? Bonds important because??? Break them? energy! Two types of Rxn can make/break bonds.
15 Chemical Reactions Decomposition Reaction (Catabolism) Breaks chemical bonds AB A + B Hydrolysis A-B + H 2 O A-H + HO-B Synthesis Reaction (Anabolism) Forms chemical bonds A + B AB Dehydration synthesis A-H + HO-B A-B + H 2 O
16 Chemical Reactions Synthetic Rxn compounds Sucrose Glucose + Fructos Fructose Glucose e Fructose O Fructose Two types of compounds can be made
17 Organic and Inorganic Compounds Inorganic Compounds not based on carbon and hydrogen CO 2, O 2, H 2 O, NaCl, etc. Organic Compounds based on carbon and hydrogen life molecules
18 Chemical Reactions SO???? know about bonds know about compounds want to understand molecules of an organism still need to understand how compounds interact in H 2 0 why? most of our body is H 2 0 still need ph
19 How do compounds interact with H 2 0? Hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds Hydrophilic hydro- = water, philos = loving Interacts with water So, why? Cl - ions, polar molecules Hydrophobic phobos = fear Does NOT interact with water nonpolar molecules, fats, and oils CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 3 (No charge)
20 ph ph The concentration of hydrogen ions (H + ) in a solution Power of Hydrogen Neutral ph A balance of H + and OH - Pure water = 7.0
21 Figure 2-10 ph and Hydrogen Ion Concentration 1 mol/l hydrochloric acid Stomach acid Beer, vinegar, wine, Tomatoes, pickles grapes Urine Saliva, milk Blood Ocean water Pure water Eggs Household bleach Household ammonia 1 mol/l sodium hydroxide Oven cleaner Extremely acidic Increasing concentration of H + Neutral Increasing concentration of OH - Extremely basic ph 0 [H + ] 10 0 (mol/l) Acid A solute that adds hydrogen ions to a solution Base A solute that removes hydrogen ions from a solution
22 Life molecules: 4 Groups In biology we speak of Macromolecules: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins (or amino acids) Nucleic acids
23 Carbohydrates
24 Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Simple sugars Glucose Disaccharides Two simple sugars linked Sucrose Polysaccharides Many monosaccharides linked Glycogen
25 Figure 2-12b The Formation and Breakdown of Complex Sugars HYDROLYSIS Sucrose Glucose Fructose
26 Figure 2-12a The Formation and Breakdown of Complex Sugars DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS Glucose Fructose Sucrose
27 Lipids Lipids Made mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms Include: 5 groups
28 Lipids Fatty Acids chains of carbon and hydrogen + carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end
29
30 Lipids Fatty Acids chains of carbon and hydrogen + carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end +/-nonpolar, except the carboxyl group Fatty acids may be: Saturated with hydrogen (no double covalent bonds) Unsaturated (one or more double bonds)
31 Figure 2-14b Fatty Acids Saturated Unsaturated
32
33 Hydrogenation: Trans Fatty Acids Eat less trans Pack tightly Lead to cholesterol buildup Unnatural Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
34 Lipids Eicosanoids pro-inflammatory Hormones (Ch. 18) = signaling Non-steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs inhibit these
35 Lipids Glycerides Fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule Triglycerides are the three fatty-acid tails Have three important functions 1. Energy source 2. Insulation 3. Protection
36 Figure 2-16 Triglyceride Formation Glycerol Fatty acids DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS HYDROLYSIS
37 Lipids Phospholipids Instead of three fatty acids, two fatty acids:
38 Figure 2-18a Phospholipids Phosphate group two fatty acids Glycerol phospholipid
39 Figure 2-18a Phospholipids Cell membranes!
40 Lipids Steroids Four rings of carbon and hydrogen + Types: Cholesterol Estrogens and testosterone
41 Figure 2-17 Steroids Cholesterol Estrogen Testosterone
42 Nucleic Acids Nucleic Acids two types: DNA Determines inherited characteristics Directs protein synthesis RNA Controls intermediate steps in protein synthesis
43 Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA are strings of nucleotides Nucleotides made of 3 parts
44 Generic nucleotide The nitrogenous base may be a purine or a pyrimidine. Sugar Phosphate group Nitrogenous base
45 Purines Adenine Guanine
46 Pyrimidines Cytosine Thymine (DNA only) Uracil (RNA only)
47 Nucleic Acids DNA double stranded RNA RNA is single stranded Complementary base pairs DNA RNA Adenine (A) and thymine (T) Cytosine (C) and guanine (G) Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T)
48 Phosphate group Deoxyribose Adenine Thymine Hydrogen bond DNA strand 1 DNA strand 2 RNA molecule. Cytosine Guanine DNA molecule.
49 Nucleic Acids Types of RNA mrna trna rrna
50 Proteins Proteins Most abundant organic molecules Made of amino acids (AA) Let s look at AA central carbon with 4 things attached to it:
51 Structure of an Amino Acid Amino group Central carbon Carboxyl group R group
52 Peptide Bond Formation Glycine (gly) Alanine (ala) DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS HYDROLYSIS Peptide bond
53 Proteins So, what do proteins look like? Protein Shape Primary structure Secondary structure Tertiary structure Quaternary structure
54 Figure 2-21 Protein Structure 1 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 Linear chain of amino acids A1 A2 A3 A4 A2 Hydrogen bond A6 Hydrogen bond A10 A9 A8 A7 A6 A5 A1 A3 A5 A7 A9 OR A11 A12 A13 A14 Alpha-helix Pleated sheet OR Heme units Hemoglobin (globular protein) Keratin or collagen (fibrous protein)
55 Figure 2-21 Protein Structure A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 Linear chain of amino acids A1 A2 A3 A4 A2 Hydrogen bond A6 Hydrogen bond A10 A9 A8 A7 A6 A5 2 A1 A3 A5 A7 A9 OR A11 A12 A13 A14 Alpha-helix Pleated sheet OR Heme units Hemoglobin (globular protein) Keratin or collagen (fibrous protein)
56 Figure 2-21 Protein Structure A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 Amyloid- β Linear chain of amino acids A1 A2 A3 A4 A2 Hydrogen bond A6 Hydrogen bond A10 A9 A8 A7 A6 A5 A1 A3 A5 A7 A9 OR A11 A12 A13 A14 Alpha-helix Pleated sheet OR Heme units Hemoglobin (globular protein) Alzheimers Keratin or collagen (fibrous protein)
57 Figure 2-21 Protein Structure A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 Linear chain of amino acids A1 A2 A3 A4 2 A1 A2 Hydrogen bond A3 A5 A6 A7 A9 Hydrogen bond OR A10 A9 A8 A7 A6 A11 A12 A13 A14 A5 Alpha-helix Pleated sheet OR Heme units Hemoglobin (globular protein) Keratin or collagen (fibrous protein)
58 Figure 2-21 Protein Structure A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 Linear chain of amino acids A1 A2 A3 A4 A2 Hydrogen bond A6 Hydrogen bond A10 A9 A8 A7 A6 A5 A1 A3 A5 A7 A9 OR A11 A12 A13 A14 Alpha-helix Pleated sheet 3 OR Heme units Hemoglobin (globular protein) Keratin or collagen (fibrous protein)
59 Figure 2-21 Protein Structure A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 Linear chain of amino acids A1 A2 A3 A4 A2 Hydrogen bond A6 Hydrogen bond A10 A9 A8 A7 A6 A5 A1 A3 A5 A7 A9 OR A11 A12 A13 A14 Alpha-helix Pleated sheet 4 OR Heme units Hemoglobin (globular protein) Keratin or collagen (fibrous protein)
60 Proteins A special type of protein: Enzymes Catalysts VERY specific Lower the activation energy Not changed or used up in the reaction Enzymes work fast! 78 MY 25 ms
61 Substrates bind to active site of enzyme S 1 S 2 Substrates ENZYME Active site
62 Once bound to the active site, the substrates are held together and their interaction facilitated S 1 S 2 ENZYME Enzyme-substrate complex
63 Substrate binding alters the shape of the enzyme, and this change promotes product formation PRODUCT ENZYME
64 Product detaches from enzyme; entire process can now be repeated ENZYME
65 Proteins Effects of Temperature and ph on Enzyme Function Denaturation Loss of shape and function due to heat or ph
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