Chapter 29 The Skeletal and Muscular Systems
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1 Copyright McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Chapter 29 The Skeletal and Muscular Systems Artificial limb: Jeff J Mitchell/Getty Images
2 Muscles Interact with the Skeleton Most animal movements require interaction between the muscular and skeletal systems. Section 29.1
3 Muscles Interact with the Skeleton The muscular system provides motion. Muscle cells contract when stimulated by the nervous system. Muscle Section 29.1
4 Muscles Interact with the Skeleton The skeleton adds a firm supporting structure that muscles pull against. Muscle Muscle attachment to bone Skeleton Section 29.1
5 Skeletons Take Many Forms Exoskeleton Scientists classify skeletons into three categories: Hydrostatic skeleton Exoskeleton Endoskeleton Hydrostatic skeleton Endoskeleton Section 29.1 Jellyfish: Gabriel Bouys/AFP/Getty Images; crab: Photodisc/Getty Images RF; fish X-ray: Jim Wehtje/Getty Images RF Figure 29.1
6 Skeletons Take Many Forms A hydrostatic skeleton is fluid constrained within a layer of flexible tissue. Many invertebrates have hydrostatic skeletons. Section 29.1 Jellyfish: Gabriel Bouys/AFP/Getty Images Figure 29.1
7 Skeletons Take Many Forms An exoskeleton protects an animal from the outside. Animals with exoskeletons must periodically molt. Section 29.1 Crab: Photodisc/Getty Images RF Figure 29.2
8 Skeletons Take Many Forms An endoskeleton is an internal support structure. An endoskeleton grows with the animal and weighs less than an exoskeleton, but external soft tissues are not protected. Section 29.1 Figure 29.3
9 Body size (mm) Clicker Question #1 The graph below depicts the growth of an animal over time. What sort of skeleton does the animal probably have? A. endoskeleton B. exoskeleton C. hydrostatic skeleton Time Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
10 Body size (mm) Clicker Question #1 The graph below depicts the growth of an animal over time. What sort of skeleton does the animal probably have? A. endoskeleton B. exoskeleton C. hydrostatic skeleton Time Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
11 29.1 Mastering Concepts Describe similarities and differences among the three main types of skeletons. Artificial limb: Jeff J Mitchell/Getty Images
12 The Vertebrate Skeleton: An Overview Bones are the organs of the vertebrate skeleton. They are grouped into two categories: Axial skeleton (tan) Appendicular skeleton (blue) Section 29.2 Figure 29.4
13 The Vertebrate Skeleton: An Overview The axial skeleton is located along the central axis of the body. It consists of: Bones in the head Bones of the rib cage The vertebral column Section 29.2 Figure 29.4
14 The Vertebrate Skeleton: An Overview The axial skeleton shields soft body parts. The skull protects the brain and the sense organs. The ribs protect the heart and lungs. The vertebral column protects the spinal cord. Section 29.2 Figure 29.4
15 The Vertebrate Skeleton: An Overview The appendicular skeleton consists of the appendages and the bones that support them. The pectoral girdle connects the forelimbs to the axial skeleton. The pelvic girdle attaches the hind limbs to the axial skeleton. Section 29.2 Figure 29.4
16 The Vertebrate Skeleton: An Overview The vertebrate skeleton consists of many bones. Section 29.2 Figure 29.4
17 29.2 Mastering Concepts Describe the two subdivisions of the human skeleton. Artificial limb: Jeff J Mitchell/Getty Images
18 The Skull and Associated Bones
19
20 Sutures Sutures Immovable joints that join skull bones together Form boundaries between skull bones Four sutures: Coronal between parietal and frontal Sagittal between parietal bones Lambdoid between the parietal and occipital Squamous between the parietal and temporal Fontanels usually ossify by 2 years of age
21 Sagittal Frontal (Coronal) Squamous Lambdoid Sutures
22 The Adult Skull skull = 22 bones cranium = 8 bones: frontal, occipital, 2 temporals, 2 parietals, sphenoid and ethmoid facial bones = 14 bones: nasals, maxillae, zygomatics, mandible, lacrimals, palatines, inferior nasal conchae, vomer. skull forms a larger cranial cavity -also forms the nasal cavity, the orbits, paranasal sinuses mandible and auditory ossicles are the only movable skull bones cranial bones also: attach to membranes called meninges -stabilize positions of the brain, blood vessels -outer surface provides large areas for muscle attachment that move the head or provide facial expressions
23 Bones of the Cranium
24 Frontal View
25 Frontal View Frontal
26 Parietal Frontal View
27 Temporal Frontal View
28 Frontal View Nasal
29 Vomer Frontal View
30 Frontal View Zygoma
31 Maxilla Frontal View
32 Frontal View Mandible
33 Parietal Temporal Vomer Maxilla Frontal Nasal Zygoma Mandible Frontal View
34 Lateral View
35 Frontal Lateral View
36 Lateral View Parietal
37 Lateral View Temporal
38 Nasal Lateral View
39 Zygoma Lateral View
40 Maxilla Lateral View
41 Mandible Lateral View
42 Lateral View Occipital
43 Lateral View Mastoid Process
44 External Auditory Meatus Lateral View
45 Frontal Nasal Zygoma Maxilla Parietal Sphenoid Temporal Occipital Mastoid Process Mandible External Auditory Meatus Lateral View
46
47
48 Figure 6.4 Sectional Anatomy of the Skull, Part I
49
50 14 Facial Bones Nasal (2) Maxillae (2) Zygomatic (2) Mandible (1) Lacrimal (2) Palatine (2) Inferior nasal conchae (2) Vomer (1)
51 Bone Structure and Function Bones consist mostly of specialized cells suspended in a hard extracellular matrix. Section 29.3
52 Bone Structure and Function Bones are lightweight and strong because they are porous, not solid. Section 29.3
53 Bone Structure and Function The shaft of a long bone contains a marrow cavity, which houses red or yellow bone marrow. Section 29.3 Cartilage: Chuck Brown/Science Source; bone: Ed Reschke Figure 29.6
54 Bone Structure and Function Red bone marrow is a nursery for blood cells and platelets. Section 29.3 Cartilage: Chuck Brown/Science Source; bone: Ed Reschke Figure 29.6
55 Bone Structure and Function Yellow bone marrow replaces red marrow in adult limb bones. It does not produce blood, but can revert to red marrow if necessary. Section 29.3 Cartilage: Chuck Brown/Science Source; bone: Ed Reschke Figure 29.6
56 Bone Structure and Function Bones also contain nerves and blood vessels. Section 29.3 Cartilage: Chuck Brown/Science Source; bone: Ed Reschke Figure 29.6
57 Bone Structure and Function Bone cells are called osteocytes. They secrete a hard extracellular matrix that consists of collagen and minerals. Section 29.3 Cartilage: Chuck Brown/Science Source; bone: Ed Reschke Figure 29.6
58 Bone Structure and Function Collagen adds flexibility, and the minerals add hardness and rigidity. Section 29.3 Cartilage: Chuck Brown/Science Source; bone: Ed Reschke Figure 29.6
59 Bone Structure and Function Compact bone is hard and dense. Spongy bone is light and porous. Section 29.3 Cartilage: Chuck Brown/Science Source; bone: Ed Reschke Figure 29.6
60 Bone Structure and Function The vertebrate skeleton also has cartilage, which serves as a shock absorber. Section 29.3 Cartilage: Chuck Brown/Science Source; bone: Ed Reschke Figure 29.6
61 Bone Structure and Function Bone tissue replaces cartilage as an individual develops. In children, bone growth occurs at growth plates made of cartilage. Section 29.3 Figure 29.7
62 Bone Structure and Function The vertebrate skeleton has several important functions. Section 29.3 Table 29.1
63 Bone Structure and Function Especially notable is the skeleton s role in calcium homeostasis. Section 29.3 Table 29.1
64 Bone Structure and Function Bones are a reservoir for calcium, which has many essential functions in the body. Thyroid and parathyroid hormones regulate calcium homeostasis. Section 29.3 Figure 29.9
65 Bone Structure and Function If bones consistently lose more calcium than they add, then osteoporosis develops, in which bones become less dense. Section 29.3 Healthy bone: Prof. P.M. Motta/Science Source; osteoporosis: Dee Breger/Science Source Figure 29.10
66 Bone Structure and Function Sometimes, disuse causes bones to become less dense. Section 29.3 Healthy bone: Prof. P.M. Motta/Science Source; osteoporosis: Dee Breger/Science Source Figure 29.10
67 Bone Meets Bone at a Joint A joint is an area where two bones meet. Section 29.3 Figure 29.11
68 Bone Meets Bone at a Joint Movable joints have fluidfilled capsules of connective tissue, allowing bones to move against each other with little friction. Section 29.3 Figure 29.11
69 Bone Meets Bone at a Joint Bands of connective tissue help stabilize movable joints. Ligaments connect bone to bone. Tendons connect bone to muscle. Section 29.3 Figure 29.11
70 Clicker Question #2 A painful condition called tennis elbow is caused by inflammation of the tissue that connects a muscle to an arm bone. Tennis elbow therefore reflects a problem with a A. joint. B. ligament. C. tendon. D. muscle fiber. E. bone. Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
71 Clicker Question #2 A painful condition called tennis elbow is caused by inflammation of the tissue that connects a muscle to an arm bone. Tennis elbow therefore reflects a problem with a A. joint. B. ligament. C. tendon. D. muscle fiber. E. bone. Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
72 29.3 Mastering Concepts What are the main parts of a long bone? Artificial limb: Jeff J Mitchell/Getty Images
73 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP As we ve seen, movement relies on interaction between bones and muscles. Section 29.4
74 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP Muscles have many other functions too. Section 29.4 Table 29.2
75 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP The human body has more than 600 skeletal muscles, which generate voluntary movements. Section 29.4 Figure 29.12
76 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP Pairs of muscles work together to generate body movements. Section 29.4 Figure 29.12
77 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP Muscles have a hierarchical organization. Section 29.4 Figure 29.14
78 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP Muscles consist mainly of bundles of muscle fibers. Section 29.4 Figure 29.10
79 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP Each muscle fiber is a single cell. Section 29.4 Figure 29.10
80 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP Each muscle cell is packed with myofibrils. Section 29.4 Figure 29.10
81 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP Myofibrils are divided into functional units called sarcomeres. Section 29.4 Figure 29.10
82 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP Each sarcomere contains thick and thin protein filaments. Section 29.4 Figure 29.10
83 Clicker Question #3 If you arrange the following items in order from largest to smallest, which item is THIRD on the list? myofibril, muscle fiber, sarcomere, muscle, actin subunit A. muscle fiber B. sarcomere C. muscle D. actin subunit E. myofibril Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
84 Clicker Question #3 If you arrange the following items in order from largest to smallest, which item is THIRD on the list? myofibril, muscle fiber, sarcomere, muscle, actin subunit A. muscle fiber B. sarcomere C. muscle D. actin subunit E. myofibril Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
85 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP When a muscle cell contracts, its sarcomeres become shorter. Section 29.4 Figure 29.15
86 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP According to the sliding filament model, sarcomeres contract because the thin actin filaments slide between the thick myosin filaments. Section 29.4 Figure 29.15
87 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP How does this sliding action occur? Section 29.4 Figure 29.15
88 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP Before the thick and thin filaments of a sarcomere can slide passed one another, the muscle cell must be stimulated. Section 29.4 Figure 29.16
89 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP An action potential travels along a motor neuron. When it reaches the axon terminal, the cell releases neurotransmitters. Section 29.4 Figure 29.16
90 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP Neurotransmitters bind to the muscle cell, starting an electrical wave that propagates along the muscle cell membrane. Section 29.4 Figure 29.16
91 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP As the electrical wave spreads down T tubules, it causes the nearby sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium into the sarcomere. Section 29.4 Figure 29.16
92 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP The presence of calcium allows filaments to slide. Let s look more closely at a sarcomere. Section 29.4 Figure 29.16
93 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP Muscle contraction at a molecular scale: Section 29.4 Figure 29.17
94 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP In step 1, actin and myosin filaments are near each other but not touching. The muscle has received a signal from the nervous system. Section 29.4 Figure 29.17
95 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP Calcium binds to a thin-filament protein called troponin, causing it to change shape and pull on another protein called tropomyosin. Section 29.4 Figure 29.17
96 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP With tropomyosin pulled aside, binding sites on actin are exposed. Section 29.4 Figure 29.17
97 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP In step 2, myosin binds to exposed binding sites on actin, forming cross bridges. Section 29.4 Figure 29.17
98 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP In step 3, the cross bridge changes shape from straight to bent. This power stroke pulls on the actin filament. Section 29.4 Figure 29.17
99 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP A new ATP molecule comes in at step 4. It binds to the cross bridges, which causes them to separate from the actin binding sites. Section 29.4 Figure 29.17
100 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP In step 5, hydrolysis of ATP provides the energy to return myosin to its straight conformation. Section 29.4 Figure 29.17
101 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP Myosin is now ready to bind to actin again. Section 29.4 Figure 29.17
102 Muscle Contraction Requires ATP Once the electrical stimulation from the nervous system subsides, calcium will release from troponin, and myosin can no longer bind to actin. Section 29.4 Figure 29.17
103 Clicker Question #4 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also called Lou Gehrig's disease, is a disorder in which motor neurons are destroyed. How would this disorder affect muscle function? A. Muscles fail to contract because ATP is not available. B. Muscles fail to contract because they do not receive a signal to do so. C. Muscles are continually contracted because ATP is not available. D. Muscles are continually contracted because they do not receive a signal to relax. Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
104 Clicker Question #4 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also called Lou Gehrig's disease, is a disorder in which motor neurons are destroyed. How would this disorder affect muscle function? A. Muscles fail to contract because ATP is not available. B. Muscles fail to contract because they do not receive a signal to do so. C. Muscles are continually contracted because ATP is not available. D. Muscles are continually contracted because they do not receive a signal to relax. Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
105 29.4 Mastering Concepts Describe how sliding filaments shorten a sarcomere. Artificial limb: Jeff J Mitchell/Getty Images
106 Muscle Fibers Generate ATP in Multiple Ways As we ve seen, ATP is important for muscle contraction. Section 29.5 Figure 29.17
107 Muscle Fibers Generate ATP in Multiple Ways A resting muscle cell generates ATP in aerobic respiration. Section 29.5 Figure 29.18
108 Muscle Fibers Generate ATP in Multiple Ways During activity, muscle cells replenish ATP with creatine phosphate, a molecule that donates a phosphate to ADP. Section 29.5 Creatine: Alan Mather/Alamy; runners: Photodisc Inc./ Getty Images RF
109 Muscle Fibers Generate ATP in Multiple Ways But creatine phosphate supply is depleted in less than a minute of continuous exercise. Section 29.5 Creatine: Alan Mather/Alamy; runners: Photodisc Inc./ Getty Images RF
110 Muscle Fibers Generate ATP in Multiple Ways After creatine phosphate is gone, aerobic respiration continues to produce ATP if muscles are receiving enough oxygen. Section 29.5 Creatine: Alan Mather/Alamy; runners: Photodisc Inc./ Getty Images RF
111 Muscle Fibers Generate ATP in Multiple Ways Otherwise, the cells switch to fermentation, an anaerobic pathway of ATP production that generates lactic acid as a byproduct. Section 29.5 Creatine: Alan Mather/Alamy; runners: Photodisc Inc./ Getty Images RF
112 Muscle Fibers Generate ATP in Multiple Ways Muscle cell metabolism also explains why a dead body goes stiff. After death, cells no longer produce ATP. Actin cannot separate from myosin, resulting in rigor mortis. Section 29.5 Photo: Brand X Pictures/Punchstock/RF
113 29.5 Mastering Concepts Describe the role of creatine phosphate in muscle metabolism. Artificial limb: Jeff J Mitchell/Getty Images
114 Muscles Are Organized into Motor Units Motor neurons send impulses from the central nervous system to muscle cells, causing them to contract. Section 29.4 Figure 29.19
115 Muscles Are Organized into Motor Units One motor neuron typically synapses with several muscle cells, forming a motor unit that contracts together. Section 29.4 Figure 29.19
116 Muscles Are Organized into Motor Units Motor units may be small (consisting of few muscle cells) or large. Smaller motor units produce fine, precise movements. Section 29.4 Figure 29.19
117 Muscles Are Organized into Motor Units The nervous system stimulates of many motor units in concert to produce smooth, coordinated movements. Section 29.4 Figure 29.19
118 Muscle Fiber Types Influence Athletic Skeletal muscles contain two types of cells, distinguished by how quickly they contract and tire. Performance Section 29.6 Woman runner: RubberBall/Getty Images RF; muscle fiber: G.W. Willis/Visuals Unlimited; weight lifter: Jack Mann/Photodisc/Getty Images RF Figure 29.20
119 Muscle Fiber Types Influence Athletic Slow-twitch fibers are small, use energy slowly, and have high endurance. Performance Section 29.6 Woman runner: RubberBall/Getty Images RF; muscle fiber: G.W. Willis/Visuals Unlimited; weight lifter: Jack Mann/Photodisc/Getty Images RF Figure 29.20
120 Muscle Fiber Types Influence Athletic Fast-twitch fibers are large, use bursts of energy, and tire quickly. Performance Section 29.6 Woman runner: RubberBall/Getty Images RF; muscle fiber: G.W. Willis/Visuals Unlimited; weight lifter: Jack Mann/Photodisc/Getty Images RF Figure 29.20
121 Muscle Fiber Types Influence Athletic The proportion of slow- and fast-twitch fibers in an individual s muscles is mostly genetically determined. However, it is possible to alter the ratio through exercise. Performance Section 29.6 Woman runner: RubberBall/Getty Images RF; muscle fiber: G.W. Willis/Visuals Unlimited; weight lifter: Jack Mann/Photodisc/Getty Images RF Figure 29.20
122 Muscle Fiber Types Influence Athletic Performance Exercise also increases the size of muscle cells the efficiency of muscle cell metabolism blood flow to muscles bone strength Section 29.6 Woman runner: RubberBall/Getty Images RF; muscle fiber: G.W. Willis/Visuals Unlimited; weight lifter: Jack Mann/Photodisc/Getty Images RF Figure 29.20
123 Clicker Question #5 An athlete supplements her diet with creatine phosphate. How might her athletic performance improve? A) She might be more competitive in long triathlons. B) She might be able to run a marathon much more quickly. C) She might be able to sprint for slightly longer. D) More than one of these choices is correct. Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
124 Clicker Question #5 An athlete supplements her diet with creatine phosphate. How might her athletic performance improve? A) She might be more competitive in long triathlons. B) She might be able to run a marathon much more quickly. C) She might be able to sprint for slightly longer. D) More than one of these choices is correct. Flower: Doug Sherman/Geofile/RF
125 29.6 Mastering Concepts Why do endurance sports require a high proportion of slow-twitch muscle fibers, whereas power sports require more fasttwitch muscle fibers? Artificial limb: Jeff J Mitchell/Getty Images
126 Investigating Life: Did a Myosin Gene Mutation Make Humans Brainier? Myosin genes encode proteins abundant in muscle cells. A myosin gene expressed in jaw muscles is mutated in human DNA but active in related primates. Section 29.7 Figure 29.22
127 Investigating Life: Did a Myosin Gene Mutation Make Humans Brainier? The myosin mutation explains why humans have small and weak jaw muscles compared to our relatives, but how does it relate to our intellectual abilities? Section 29.7 Figure 29.22
128 Investigating Life: Did a Myosin Gene Mutation Make Humans Brainier? Large jaw muscles have larger attachment areas on the skull than small jaw muscles, which might put a constraint on brain size. Section 29.7 Figure 29.22
129 Investigating Life: Did a Myosin Gene Mutation Make Humans Brainier? Weak jaw muscles might have lifted this constraint on brain size, changing the course of human evolution. Section 29.7 Figure 29.22
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