Human Factors Engineering HHP8102

Transcription

1 Human Factors Engineering HHP8102 Professor Mare Teichmann Copyright 2010 Mare Teichmann, Tallinn University of Technology, Institute of Industrial Psychology. All rights reserved MENTAL PROCESSES OUTLINE 1. Sensation 2. Perception 3. Attention 4. Memory 5. Emotions, motivation 6. Thinking and intelligence MENTAL PROCESSES 5. Emotions, motivation Emotion is a mental state that arises spontaneously rather than through conscious effort and is often accompanied by physiological changes; a feeling: the emotions of joy, sorrow, reverence, hate, and love. 1

2 MENTAL PROCESSES 5. Emotions, motivation An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings, thoughts, and behavior. Emotion Even when person is feeling something emotional his attention is directed toward that thing. Some categorizations include: 1. 'Cognitive' versus'non-cognitive' emotions 2. Instinctual emotions versuscognitive emotions 3. Basic versuscomplex: where base emotions lead to more complex ones. 4. Duration: some emotions occur over a period of second (e.g. surprise), whereas others can last years (e.g. love). Cognitive theories of emotions James-Lange theory: says "the perception of bodily changes as they occur is the emotion. and we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be (James, William, What is an Emotion? Mind, 9: ) * More recent theories of emotions emphases three elements of emotion: 1. The Body 2. The Mind 3. The Culture 2

3 Scheme of emotional state EMOTION Somatic change Vegetative change Expression of emotion Emotional expressions Emotional expressions 3

4 Computer Generated Prototypes of Facial Expressions of Emotions Methods of Psychological Research Vol.3 No Pabst Science Publishers 11 Computer Simulated Emotional Expressions :) 4

5 A B For example: Spontaneous smile Orbicularis oculi + Zygomaticus major + A Orbicularis oculi - Zygomaticus major + B A Spontaneus B Artistic Keep smiling Duchenne de Bologne, 1862/1990, Ekman, 1990 Voice and emotions Speaking tempo Pauses (1 3 seconds is a normal pause) Non-words Volume of voice 5

6 Body language and emotions Body language is a form of non-verbal communication, consisting of body pose, gestures, and eye movements. Humans send and interpret such signals subconsciously Body language and emotions Example of physiology (G. Dumas, 1976) The rate of respirations Normal Gladness Anxiety Anger Fear 16 inhalations / 1 minute 17 inhalations / 1 min 20 inhalations / 1 min 40 inhalations / 1 min 64 inhalations / 1 min 6

7 Cognitive theories of emotions Perceptual theory of emotions: arguing that bodily responses are central to emotions, yet it emphasizes the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something, as is recognized by cognitive theories. The novel claim of this theory is that conceptually based cognition is unnecessary for such meaning. Cognitive theories of emotions Affective Events Theory: this a communicationbased theory developed by Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano (1996), that looks at the causes, structures, and consequences of emotional experience (especially in work contexts). This theory suggests that emotions are influenced and caused by events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors. Also emphasizes time in that human beings experience what they call emotion episodes. Cognitive theories of emotions Two-factor theory of emotions: another cognitive theory is the Singer-Schachter theory (Schachter, S., Singer, J., 1962). This based on experiments purportedly showing that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of adrenaline. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation displayed that emotion. 7

8 In human factors science, the emotions are analyzed in order to assess the role of emotions on purchase decisionmaking and risk perception. Bipolar state of emotions EMOTIONS sthenic positive asthenical negative 8

9 Some examples: Altruistic emotions Communicative emotions Romantic emotions Gnostic emotions Esthetical emotions Ethical emotions Hedonistic emotions Positive emotions Our quality of life research (TTÜ, ) shows that there is strong correlation between positive emotions and quality of life in general (WHO Quality of Life Index, r = 0.70). Positive emotions at workplace University of Cambridge and TUT collaborative research ( ) of office workers core psychological causes of positive emotion at the workplace shows that the emotions cause frequencies did differ significantly from each other,? 2 (10) = , p <.01. The occurrence of Fulfilled Expectations was by far the most common, at 30.5% of all the frequent cause occurrences (binomial test z = 14.01, p <.01), followed by Improvement and Positive Self-Picture, at 18.3% (z = 6.06, p <.01) and 18.0% (z = 5.88, p <.01), respectively. 9

10 Groupthink Groupthink is a type of thought exhibited by group members who try to minimize conflict and reach consensus without critically testing, analyzing and evaluating ideas. Individual creativity, uniqueness and independent thinking are lost. One reason of groupthink is the choice (need) to keep emotionally stable harmony among the group members. Control theory Control theory is an interdisciplinary subfield of science, which originated in engineering and mathematics and evolved into use by the social sciences, like psychology. One who has control over the mind is tranquil in heat and cold, in pleasure and pain, and in honor and dishonor (Bhagavad Gita) Control theory Wagner, 2006 Control: the use of goals to regulate a process. The comparison of feedback and/or predictions with ideal states, and the use of comparison information to alter an ongoing process Goal: a representation of an ideal state to be achieved May change depending on current state Two ways goals shape regulation: by comparison with feedback and/or expectations Feedback: a representation of a state or process to be regulated Expectation: a prediction about a future state of the world or self * Source: Wagner, R. (2006). Expectations and individual differences in cognitive and affective control, University of Michigan 10

11 Locus of control Rotter's original (1966) locus of control formulation classified generalized beliefs concerning who or what influences things along a bipolar dimension from internal to external control: Internal control is the term used to describe the belief that control of future outcomes resides primarily in oneself while external control refers to the expectancy that control is outside of oneself, either in the hands of powerful other people or due to fate/chance. Locus of control Rotter, Julian, 1954 Locus of control is a term in psychology that refers to a person s belief what causes the good and bad results in his life in general as well as in his specific actions. Rotter (1975) cautioned that internality and externality represent two ends of a continuum, not an either/or typology. Internals tend to attribute outcomes of events to their own control. Externals attribute outcomes of events to external circumstances. Locus of control Rotter, Julian, 1954 Externality Internality 11

12 Work Locus of control Work locus of control (Spector, 1988) reflects an individual s tendency to believe that he controls events in his work life (internality) or that such control resides elsewhere, such as with powerful others (externality). It has been argued that the people of the former Soviet block in eastern Europe should be more external in their locus of control than the people of Western nations (Tobacyk & Tobacyk, 1992; Kaufmann, 1995; Frese et al., 1996; Spector et al., 2002). Eastern European Managers Work Locus of Control in Eastern versus Western Europe N Work Locus of Control USA and Western European N Work Locus of Control USA ,5 Romania ,3 Germany 85 40,4 Estonia ,1 Sweden ,5 Poland ,0 Belgium ,4 Slovenia ,1 France 61 45,1 Ukraine ,6 Spain ,6 Bulgaria ,3 UK ,8 * WorkLocus of Control lower scores represents internality Is Estonian managers WLC a stable construct in the dimension of time? We took the mean score from Sample 1 as a standard and compared it with the corresponding mean scores for each other samples to see if there was significant difference. Mean Scores and Difference Between the Samples of Estonian Managers Sample 1 (N=163) 1996 Sample 2 (N=164) 2002 Sample 3 (N=309) 2004 Work Locus of p = p =.001 Control * Work locus of control lower scores represents internality * Source: Teichmann, M. (2006). Professionals' work locus of control and quality o International Journal of Psychology, 43(3-4), 812?? 12

13 MENTAL PROCESSES 5. Emotions, motivation Motivation is the activation of goaloriented behavior. Motivation as the general desire or willingness someone to do something. Motive is the reason or reasons one has for acting or behaving in particular way. Motivation MOTIVATION Intrinsic Extrinsic Intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation comes from rewards inherent to a task or activity itself. For example: Enjoyment of a play; solving an interesting problem 13

14 Extrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. For example: Money; threat of punishment Homeostatic model of motivation NEED EXISTS MOTIVE BEHAVIOR YES Need exists Reference standard Body compares reference standard and current state to determine wheter need exists NO Need does not exist Current state of organism No change necessary NEED DOES NOT EXIST * Source: Davidoff, L. (1987). Introduction to Psychology, McGraw -Hill Book Co Incentive model of motivation Incentive Motivation Behavior Past and present experience Cognitions and emotions * Source: Davidoff, L. (1987). Introduction to Psychology, McGraw -Hill Book Co 14

15 Motivation as a process MOTIVATION DRIVE NEED MOTIVE BEHAVIOR I like, I want I must MOTIVATION PERSONALITY SELF-MOTIVATION EXTERNAL STIMULI punishment and prise 15

16 POSITIVE STIMULUS Banana? NEGATIVE STIMULUS Punishment RULES Theories of motivation According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in the basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure. Need theories Need hierarchy theory Maslow hierarchy of needs Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior. Only unsatisfied needs influence behavior, satisfied needs do not. Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance, from the basic to the complex. The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at least minimally satisfied. The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will show. 16

17 Maslow hierarchy of needs - 50% - 10% - 40% SELF ACTUALI- ZATION SELF-ESTEEM/ RECOGNITION/ ACHIEVEMENT BELONGINGNESS/ LOVE/FRIENSHIP - 70% - 85% SAFETY/SECURITY/ SHELTER/HEALTH PHYSIOLOGY (hunger, thirst, sleep etc.) The needs of employees Davis, Keith (1993) SELF ACTUALIZATION 3% 20% SELF-ESTEEM / RECOGNITION / ACHIEVEMENT 7% 30% BELONGINGNESS / LOVE / FRIENSHIP 10% 30% SAFETY / SECURITY / SHELTER / HEALTH 45% 15% PHYSIOLOGY 35% 5% Choice theory Glasser, William (1997) Choice Theory posits that behavior is central to our existence and is driven by five genetically driven needs, similar to those of Abraham Maslow. Survival (food, clothing, shelter, breathing, personal safety and others) Four fundamental psychological needs: Belonging/connecting/love Power/significance/competence Freedom/responsibility Fun/learning 17

18 The Ten Axioms of Choice Theory Glasser, William (1997) 1. The only person whose behavior we can control is our own. 2. All we can give another person is information. 3. All long-lasting psychological problems are relationship problems. 4. The problem relationship is always part of our present life. 5. What happened in the past has everything to do with what we are today, but we can only satisfy our basic needs right now and plan to continue satisfying them in the future. 6. We can only satisfy our needs by satisfying the pictures in our Quality World. The Ten Axioms of Choice Theory Glasser, William (1997) 7. All we do is behave. 8. All behavior is Total Behavior and is made up of four components: acting, thinking, feeling and physiology 9. All Total Behavior is chosen, but we only have direct control over the acting and thinking components. We can only control our feeling and physiology indirectly through how we choose to act and think. 10. All Total Behavior is designated by verbs and named by the part that is the most recognizable Herzberg s two-factor theory Intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction, but if absent, they do not lead to dissatisfaction bit no satisfaction. He distinguished between Motivators: e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility, which give positive satisfaction Hygiene factors: e.g. status, job security, fringe benefits, salary that do not motivate if present, but if absent, result in demotivation. 18

19 Need for Achievement (N-Ach) McClelland, David (1958) Need for Achievement (N-Ach) refers to an individual's desire for significant accomplishment, mastering of skills, control, or high standards. The term was introduced by the psychologist, McClelland, David believed that workers could not be motivated by the mere need for money in fact, extrinsic motivation could extinguish intrinsic motivation such as achievement, though money could be used as an indicator of success. Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory The desires are: Acceptance, the need for approval Curiosity, the need to think Eating, the need for food Family, the need to raise children Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's clan/ethnic group Idealism, the need for social justice Independence, the need for individuality Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable environments Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory The desires are: Physical Activity, the need for exercise Power, the need for influence of will Romance, the need for sex Saving, the need to collect Social Contact, the need for friends (peer relationships) Status, the need for social standing/importance Tranquility, the need to be safe Vengeance, the need to strike back 19