Hunger Motivation. Human beings get hungry and need to eat, do so, and then get full, which is the point at which they cannot eat anymore (satiety).

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1 Hunger Motivation Human beings get hungry and need to eat, do so, and then get full, which is the point at which they cannot eat anymore (satiety). Researchers have investigated which signals from the body and brain cause a person to become hungry, as well as which signals indicate satiety.

2 WWII Hunger Research Read the article about the Minnesota Starvation Experiment about Ancel Keys and his research group. Answer the questions in your notes.

3 Hunger Motivation Washburn and Cannon led some of the early research in hunger.

4 Hunger Motivation Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger. When our stomach expands we feel full. But, research has shown that hunger persists without stomach pangs: Tsang (1938) removed rat stomachs, connected the esophagus to the small intestines, and the rats still felt hungry (and ate food). The same holds true for people who have had their stomachs removed for cancer treatment. Also, people who have had their stomachs filled by surgical balloons had full stomachs but still did not feel satiated.

5 Body Chemistry & the Brain Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, and intestines. They send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain. * Glucose is the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for the body tissues. When its levels are low, we feel hungry.

6 The Appetite Hormones Blood vessels supply the hypothalamus, enabling it to respond to our current blood chemistry as well as to incoming neural information about the body s state. One of its tasks is monitoring levels of appetite hormones. Hormone Location Activity Insulin Pancreas Control blood glucose Ghrelin Empty stomach I m hungry signals Orexin Hypothalamus Hunger-triggering Leptin (protein hormone) Fat cells When abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger PYY Digestive tract I m not hungry signal

7 Hypothalamic Centers The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger. Destroy the LH, and an animal has no interest in eating. The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses hunger (makes you feel full). Destroy the VMH, and an animal eats excessively.

8 Set Point The interaction of appetite hormones and brain activity suggest that the body has some sort of weight thermostat. When the body falls below the set point or the point at which an individual s weight thermostat is supposedly set an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. This set point is influenced in part by heredity.

9 Limits of Set Point It doesn t address slow, sustained changes in body weight that can alter a person s set point. It doesn t address overeating and weight gain when we have unlimited access to a wide variety of tasty foods. It doesn t explain why psychological factors influence hunger. Many prefer the term settling point or set range.

10 The Psychology of Hunger Memory plays an important role in hunger. Due to difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat frequently if given food (Rozin et al., 1998). This suggests that part of knowing when to eat is our memory of our last meal.

11 Taste Preference: Biology or Culture? Body chemistry and environmental factors influence not only when we feel hunger but what we feel hungry for! Whale blubber! Roasted ants!

12 The Ecology of Eating When given a large serving utensils or a large bowl/plate, we take more food. We eat more when eating with others. When offered a supersized portion, we put away more calories.

13 Obesity Obesity is a disorder characterized by being excessively overweight. Obesity increases the risk for health issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and back problems. In women, there is a increased risk of late-life cognitive decline.

14 Body Mass Index (BMI) A BMI of 30 or more = obese. Obesity in children increases their risk of diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis, and certain types of cancer, thus shortening their life-expectancy. In addition, obese children are much more likely to suffer bullying Data

15 Obesity Rates Around the World, 2010

16 Physiology of Obesity Fat Cells: There are billion fat cells in the body. These cells can increase in size (2-3 times their normal size) and number (75 billion) in an obese individual (Sjöstrum, 1980).

17 The Genetic Factor Studies reveal that body weight has a genetic basis: Identical twins have closely similar weights, even when reared apart. Given an obese parent, boys are 3x more likely, and girls 6x more likely to be obese than those with normal-weight parents. Adoptive siblings body weights are uncorrelated; people s weights resemble those of their biological parents and siblings.

18 Social Effects of Obesity When female job applicants were made to look overweight, subjects were less willing to hire them.

19 Activity Lack of exercise is a major contributor to obesity. Just watching TV for two hours resulted in a 23% increase of weight when other factors were controlled (Hu & others, 2003).

20 Food Consumption Over the past 40 years, average weight gain has increased. Health professionals are pleading with US citizens to limit their food intake.

21 Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa: A condition in which a normal-weight person (usually an adolescent woman) continuously loses weight but still feels overweight. They remain obsessed with losing weight, and sometimes exercise excessively. Usually adolescents and 9 times out of 10 females. 1930s 2010

22 Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa: A binge-purge disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, using laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise. Depression and anxiety follow binges. Weight fluctuations as usually within or above normal ranges (easier to hide)

23 Changes in body size throughout history

24 Venus of Willendorf: c. 22,000-21,000 BCE

25 The Arrival of Marie de' Medici at Marseilles, by Peter Paul Rubens

26 The Bathers, by Pierre Auguste Renoir 1887

27 1950s sex symbol Marilyn Monroe was a size 10

28 Modern-day fashion model vs. Holocaust victim

29 The Media & Body Image: Dove s The Evolution of Beauty

30 Dove s Campaign for Real Beauty The goal of the Operation Beautiful website is to end negative self-talk or Fat Talk.

31 We will study anorexia and bulimia more in Module 69 while studying other abnormal behavior.

32 Social Motivation

33 The Need to Belong [Man] is a social animal, (Aristotle). Separation from others increases our need to belong. 20th Century Fox/ Dreamworks/ The Kobal Collection Cast Away, Tom Hanks, suffers from social starvation.

34 Belongingness (Affiliation Need) Wanting to Belong: The need to belong colors our thinking and emotions. Social Acceptance: A sense of belonging with others increases our self-esteem. Social segregation decreases it. Maintaining Relationships: We resist breaking social bonds, even bad ones. Ostracism: Social exclusion leads to demoralization, depression, and at times nasty behavior.

35 Sexual Motivation

36 Sexual Motivation Sexual motivation is nature s clever way of making people procreate, enabling our species to survive.

37 The Physiology of Sex Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the human sexual response cycle as consisting of four phases: Phase Physiological Response Excitement Genitals become engorged with blood. Vagina expands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges. Plateau Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse and blood pressure. Orgasm Contractions all over the body. Increase in breathing, pulse & blood pressure. Sexual release. Resolution Engorged genitals release blood. Male goes through refractory phase. Women resolve slower.

38 Sexual Problems Men generally suffer from two kinds of sexual problems: premature ejaculation and erectile disorder. Women may suffer from orgasmic disorders. These problems are not due to personality disorders and can be treated through behavior therapy and drugs such as Viagra.

39 Sexual Problems The APA only classifies behaviors as a sexual disorder if A person experiences distress from their unusual sexual interest or The sexual desire or behavior entails harm or risk of harm to others

40 Hormones and Sexual Behavior Sex hormones effect the development of sexual characteristics and (especially in animals) activate sexual behavior. Male Testes Female Ovaries Adrenals Testosterone (Small amounts of estrogen) Estrogen (Small amounts of testosterone)

41 Facts About Estrogen & Testosterone Women become sexually receptive when estrogen levels peak during ovulation. Women are more likely to have sex when close to ovulation (increased testosterone). Testosterone levels remain relatively constant in males, so it is difficult to manipulate and activate sexual behavior. Men show increased testosterone levels when socializing with women.

42 The Psychology of Sex Hunger responds to a need. If we do not eat, we die. In that sense, sex is not a need because if we do not have sex, we do not die.

43 External Stimuli It is common knowledge that men become sexually aroused when browsing through erotic material. Adverse effects of sexually explicit material: People may begin to devalue their own partners and relationships Satisfaction with a sexual partner can decrease Can lead to acceptance of the false idea that women enjoy rape, and can increase violence against women

44 Imagined Stimuli Sotographs/The Gamma-Liaison Network/ Getty Images Is the brain our most significant sex organ? Our imagination in our brain can influence sexual arousal and desire. People with spinal cord injuries and no genital sensation can still feel sexual desire.

45 Adolescent Sexuality When individuals reach adolescence, their sexual behavior develops. However, there are cultural differences. Sexual promiscuity in modern Western culture is much greater than in Arab countries and other Asian countries.

46 Reasons for Lack of Contraception Use Among Teens Ignorance: Surveys indicate that teens often do not have the right ideas about birth control methods. Guilt Related to Sexual Activity: Guilt reduces sexual activity, but it also reduces the use of contraceptives. Minimal Communication: Many teenagers feel uncomfortable discussing contraceptives. Alcohol Use: Those who use alcohol prior to sex are less likely to use contraceptives. Mass Media: The media s portrayal of unsafe extramarital sex decreases the use of contraceptives.

47 Sexually Transmitted Infections Many sex ed. programs in the U.S. place a greater emphasis on abstinence to reduce STIs. Factors that reduce sexual activity in teens: High Intelligence: Teens with higher intelligence are likely to delay sex. Religiosity: Religious teens and adults often reserve sex for a marital commitment. Father Presence: A father s absence from home can contribute to higher teen sexual activity. Learning Programs: Teens who volunteer and tutor in programs dedicated to reducing teen pregnancy are less likely to engage in unsafe sex.

48 Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation refers to a person s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex, and/or either sex. Homosexual Heterosexual Bisexual

49 Origins of Sexual Orientation Homosexuality is more likely based on biological factors like differing brain centers, genetics, and prenatal hormone exposure rather than environmental factors. Cynthia Johnson/ Time magazine Homosexual parents

50 Animal Homosexuality David Hecker/ AFP/ Getty Images A number of animal species are devoted to same-sex partners, suggesting that homosexuality exists in the animal world. Wendell and Cass

51 Genes & Sexual Orientation A number of reasons suggest that homosexuality may be due to genetic factors Family: Homosexuality seems to run in families. Twin studies: Homosexuality is more common in identical twins than fraternal twins. However, there are mixed results. Fruit flies: Genetic engineers can genetically manipulate females to act like males during courtship and males to act like females.

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