CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER OUTLINE

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1 CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER OUTLINE Module 11.1: Work Motivation 1) A behavior is considered motivated if it seems goal-directed. One view of motivation is that it activates and directs behavior. Another is that it energizes behavior but many motivated behaviors aren t energetic. Still another view is that motivation determines the reinforcement value of an outcome, which explains why some behaviors like eating and drinking, are more or less satisfying at times. 2) Views of Motivation: a) Drive Theories: Some theories describe motivation as a drive - state of unrest due to an unmet biological need. It leads to one behavior after another until the need is met. According to the drive-reduction theory, animals strive to lessen drives. Once needs are met, organisms become inactive. It is evident from observations of human behavior however that a moderate amount of stimulation is sought. We do not consistently try to reduce it. Drive theory also ignores the role of external stimulation. b) Homeostasis: An important concept from drive-reduction theories, homeostasis is the maintenance of optimum or balanced biological conditions in an organism. This also does not account for the power of external stimuli to arouse motivated behaviors. c) Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: An intrinsic motivation leads to activity valued or enjoyable in and of itself, while an extrinsic motivation refers to the outcomes the reinforcements and punishments that may result from an activity. Intrinsic motivation declines when more extrinsic motivation than necessary occurs; this is overjustification. This only seems to occur when people are given physical rewards for doing a task, and it is often only a weak effect. 3) Conflicting Motivations: a) Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow proposed the hierarchy of needs, the highest of which is self-actualization. The assumption is that higher needs cannot be met until more basic needs have been addressed. The theory makes intuitive sense but seems weak when closely examined. It s also culturespecific. b) Delay of Gratification: Sometimes motivated behavior involved delay of gratification, choosing a smaller payoff (or forgoing one) now in order to get a bigger one later. The choice-delay task is an example of this. Delay of gratification is complex. We may choose to get an unpleasant event over with to avoid experiencing dread, and postpone a desirable event to enjoy the anticipation of it. 4) Goals and Deadlines: People differ in degree of striving for accomplishment and excellence. Most people appear to enjoy some competition and will work to outdo others and achieve a goal if there is a reasonable chance of succeeding. Most people need deadlines to help move toward completion of goals. a) Overcoming Procrastination: Confidence and formulation of specific plans to meet goals are useful tools. The mere measurement effect states that if one names 336

2 an activity, and estimates one s likelihood of engaging in it within a specific timeframe, it s more likely to get done. b) High and Low Goals: High goals are effective for motivating those with strong need for achievement, and are somewhat effective for most people. Goals must be taken seriously (often involving a public commitment), include feedback, and be intrinsically motivated. c) Realistic Goals: To be effective, goals must be realistic. Excessive optimism, which is common in American culture, impedes formation of such goals. 2) Job Design and Job Satisfaction a) Two Approaches to Job Design: According to the scientific-management approach to job design (Theory X), most employees are lazy and indifferent. According to the human-relations approach (Theory Y), employees take responsibility for their work and like to feel a sense of accomplishment. Whether either approach is effective in practice depends on the achievement orientation of the worker/student. b) Job Satisfaction: Multiple motivational factors influence perceptions of job satisfaction. The nature and conditions of the job and people s personalities have an influence. The level of satisfaction tends to be lower among younger workers. c) Pay and Job Satisfaction: Pay is important for job satisfaction, but is not the whole story. Most employees are most satisfied if the pay is perceived to be fair. People will take lower paying jobs that offer a greater sense of accomplishment or more pleasant working conditions than higher paying jobs. 3) Leadership: A leader s style and presence influences work motivation. Transformational leaders provide a vision of the future and an intellectually stimulating atmosphere, and they encourage imagination. Transactional leaders try to make the organization more efficient by providing incentives. Leaders can use one, both, or neither of these styles. Effectiveness depends on the type of organization. Module 11.2: Hunger Motivation 1) Food selection depends on a combination of physiological, social, and cognitive factors. 2) Physiology of Hunger and Satiety: Specialized brain and body mechanisms help regulate hunger. Both short-term and long-term regulation mechanisms exist. a) Short-Term Regulation of Hunger: Cessation of eating is influenced by stomach distension, monitoring of how much we have eaten, and intestinal receptors that detect sugar in food. Onset of hunger is triggered by a drop in the amount of glucose entering cells. Glucose is the most abundant sugar in the blood, and is a primary source of energy for all parts of the body, particularly the brain. The flow of glucose depends on two hormones. One is insulin, which increases the flow of glucose into cells, and the other is glucagon, which converts the stored energy back into blood glucose. Low insulin levels are associated with diabetes. High insulin levels are associated with hypoglycemia. b) Long-Term Regulation of Hunger: Long-term mechanisms for regulating hunger are present to correct for short-term errors. It is thought that people have a set point or an optimum weight level the body works to maintain. This mechanism is related to the hormone leptin. The body s fat cells produce this hormone in 337

3 proportion to total amount of fat. Extra leptin causes meals to satisfy hunger faster. Some have suggested that perhaps leptin injections could be a remedy for obesity. However, many obese people are insensitive to leptin. c) Brain Mechanisms: Several brain areas near the hypothalamus are important in monitoring hunger and satiety. i) The lateral hypothalamus is an important area for starting meals. ii) The ventromedial hypothalamus is important for ending meals; if it s damaged an individual digests food more quickly than usual and secretes more insulin, resulting in significant overeating. The individual gets hungry frequently. iii) Damage to the paraventricular hypothalamus results in no increase in the frequency of eating, but the meals consumed tend to be enormous. 3) Social and Cultural Factors in Eating: Physiological factors account for part of our motivation to eat. Obesity is a growing problem in many nations. Social factors and the influence of mass-marketing of energy-dense junk foods are just two factors that influence this. 4) Eating Too Much or Too Little: a) Obesity is the excessive accumulation of body fat. The individual weighs more than 20 percent above the medically determined ideal weight. i) The Limited Role of Emotional Disturbances: The hypothesis that emotional problems lead to weight gain or that weight gain causes emotional problems has not been supported. Such problems can cause temporary fluctuations in appetite and body weight. ii) Genetics and Energy Output: Obesity tends to run in families. It is also influenced by lifestyle. Genes may lead to obesity or not, depending on diet and lifestyle. That obesity is far more common now than it was a century ago is strong evidence that genetics are secondary to sedentary lifestyle coupled with the prevalence of a high-fat diet. As other countries adopt American cuisine and lifestyle, obesity in those nations consistently increases. Food intake varies among obese people. Many individuals are overweight due to a low overall metabolic rate, combined with low energy output. Relative inactivity plays a role and can become a long-term habit. iii) Portion Size: In American culture the preference for value in the form of large portions and all-you-can eat restaurants is a contributing factor. Although the French diet is higher in fat, French restaurants consistently serve smaller portions of menu items. One research study of snack consumption suggests that in some circumstances we eat as much or as little as is given to us. The more we are given to eat, the more we eat. b) Losing Weight: Most reputable health providers suggest simple methods. A moderate diet and regular exercise can bring about lasting results, but these methods require a long-term commitment and perspective. It is hard to maintain this attitude in our quick-fix society. c) Social Pressures About Weight and Body Dimensions: Related to body image and weight almost everyone in the U.S. is dissatisfied. Given the pressure to be thin, many normal-weight people deprive themselves of food they would like to eat, but continue to be very hungry. Many factors make it impossible to control hunger. The brain and body s reaction to severe dieting is identical to the reaction 338

4 to starvation. d) Anorexia Nervosa: Some are so strongly motivated to be thin that they almost overrule physiological drives. In anorexia nervosa a person refuses to eat enough to maintain a stable weight, intensely fears gaining weight, and misperceives his or her body as being fatter than it is. The condition usually begins during the teenage years, and is far more common in women. Vulnerability seems related to socioeconomic status and cultural pressure to be thin. Although some claim anorexia relates to a malfunction of the lateral hypothalamus, this explanation is unlikely. Motivations may include a desire for self-control, rebellion, or attracting attention. e) Bulimia Nervosa: Bulimia involves alternating periods of self-starvation and periods of excessive eating (binges) when the individual feels that he or she has lost control. The binges are usually accompanied by purging behavior, for example, forced vomiting, laxatives, enemas, or excessive dieting and exercising. People suffering from bulimia have a tendency toward depression and a troubled family history. Unlike anorexics, people suffering from bulimia do not necessarily remain thin. Culture plays a role in that large quantities of tasty food are more readily available than ever before, so binging is easier. Module 11.3: Sexual Motivation 1) What Do People Do and How Often? a) The Kinsey Survey: Kinsey s famous study was a survey of 18,000 people. The sample was neither random nor representative. It documented great variation in human sexual behavior. b) Later Surveys: More recent survey research has added a great deal to our knowledge of U.S. sexual practices and customs. Men desire more frequent and more varied sexual activities. Members of both sexes are likely to express satisfaction with their current sex lives. Older respondents report less frequent sexual activity than younger respondents. Recent data indicates that about 4 percent (2.8 percent men, 1.4 percent women) describe themselves as having a homosexual orientation. Homosexuality vs. heterosexuality can be viewed as a continuum. c) Variations by Culture and Cohort: Puberty occurs at a much lower mean age than a century ago. Young people have access to more information about sex and portrayals of sexual activity in the media. Observable practices vary so widely across different cultures that much sexual behavior must be the product of learned customs. Though these more recent surveys have been carried out using more careful science, results should be interpreted with caution. d) Sexual Behavior in the Era of AIDS: Fear of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) has altered the sexual behavior of many. Many people engage in risky sexual behaviors despite the increased level of awareness of HIV and other STDs. e) Sexual Arousal: Sexual motivation is influenced by physiological and cognitive factors. Masters and Johnson identified four physiological stages in sexual arousal: excitement, plateau, climax, resolution. f) Sexual Dysfunction: Most people experience sexual difficulty at some time in 339

5 their lives. Decreased interest in sex, arousal with no orgasm (more likely in women), and difficulty in achieving or maintaining an erection (more likely in men) are common problems that are likely to go untreated, as people may feel uncomfortable discussing them with a health care provider. 2) Sexual Anatomy and Identity: Psychologists distinguish between gender identity, which is the sex that person views him or herself as being, and sexual orientation, which refers to the person s preference for male or female sex partners (or both). Sexual identity is based partly on physiological factors and partly on social influences. a) In early stages of development, the fetus is undifferentiated sexually. During months three and four of pregnancy, male fetuses generally secrete higher levels of testosterone than do females, while female fetuses are exposed to increased levels of the hormone estrogen. Generally, it is testosterone levels that determine sexual anatomy. b) Hermaphrodites, or intersexes, have anatomy that appears to be intermediate between male and female. Intersexes have traditionally been surgically altered and treated as girls, but many develop a male identity, and experience trauma from genital surgery. The surgery is not commonly done now and is viewed negatively by most physicians. 3) Sexual Orientation: Sexual orientation is someone s tendency to respond sexually to male or female partners or both or neither. Views of and reactions to homosexuality have differed across time and culture. Psychologists now consider a homosexual orientation to be a natural variation in sexual motivation. The origins of sexual orientation are not well understood. Family research suggests that genetic factors play a role in sexual orientation. If they do, the genetic factors are different for males and females. Some recent evidence suggests a measurable difference in brain anatomy between heterosexual and homosexual men. The often-quoted 10 percent proportion of gay and lesbian individuals in the population is inaccurate the estimated frequency appears to be somewhere between 1 3 percent. a) Differences between Men and Women: In studies of sexual arousal in response to pornography, heterosexual men were more likely to respond most strongly to images of women or men and women having sex, homosexual men responded most strongly to images of men having sex, but both lesbian and straight women responded equally strongly to all types of images. It appears that a stronger sex drive in women is associated with a greater probability of strong response to partners of either sex (bisexuality). b) Possible Influences on Sexual Orientation: Prenatal sex hormone exposure may play a role. Adult hormone levels in homosexual individuals do not differ from those of heterosexual individuals. Some recent evidence suggests a difference in brain anatomy between heterosexual and homosexual men. 340

7. A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

7. A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior 1. Interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants each of whom is rated on established scales 2. Goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses