HSP 2402 Human Anatomy and Physiology II

Transcription

1 HSP 2402 Human Anatmy and Physilgy II Instructr: Chelsea Prcter-Willman, MS, LAT, ATC Office: Archer Building 222D Phne: (325) Office Hurs: Tuesday 11am-3pm and by appintment Curse Descriptin: This curse is a cntinuatin f HSP 2401 and expands a cmprehensive study f the anatmy and physilgy f the human bdy with an emphasis n health and medical issues. Lecture tpics include special senses, the endcrine system, cardivascular and respiratry physilgy, immunity, digestin, nutritin and metablism, the urinary system, and the male and female reprductive systems. Curse Objectives: See end f the syllabus Required Text: Mckinley, MP, O Lughlin, VD, Bidle, TS. Anatmy and Physilgy: An Integrative Apprach. McGraw Hill STUDENT RESPONSIBILITY AND ATTENDANCE It is the student s respnsibility t be n time fr class, participate in class discussins, and be actively engaged in the learning prcess. Instructins and assignments will ften be given during class; therefre, it is in yur best interest t attend. If yu have t miss class due t an unfreseen event/accident r illness, please cntact the instructr prir t the start f class. Pending the reasn fr yur absence, the instructr may infrm yu f any missed hmewrk assigned during class. Nt acceptable reasns fr absences included but are nt limited t: ver sleeping, wrk, wanting t leave early r cme back late frm the weekend, and celebrating a friend, relative r pet s birthday. If yu are sick, let the instructr knw and bring a physician s nte when yu cme back t class. LATE WORK OR MISSED ASSIGNMENTS POLICY Late wrk will nt be accepted unless yu have received permissin frm the instructr prir t the due date. If yu miss an assignment due t an unexcused absence, yu are ut f luck. Shw up fr class!! ACADEMIC HONESTY Academic hnesty is expected n all wrk. Students are expected t maintain cmplete hnesty and integrity in their nline experiences. Any student fund guilty f any frm f dishnesty in academic wrk is subject f disciplinary actin and pssible expulsin frm ASU. The Department f Health Science Prfessins adheres t the academic hnesty statement as set frth in the Angel State University Student Handbk ( ). The University faculty expects all students t engage in all academic pursuits in a manner that is abve reprach and t maintain cmplete hnesty and integrity in the academic experience bth in and ut f the classrm setting and may initiate disciplinary prceedings against a student accused f an frm f academic dishnesty including but nt limited t, cheating n an examinatin r ther academic wrk, plagiarism, cllusin, and the abuse f resurce material.

2 PLAGIARISM Plagiarism at ASU is a serius tpic. The Angel State University s Hnr Cde gives specific details n plagiarism and what it encmpasses. Plagiarism is the actin r practice f taking smene else s wrk, idea, etc., and passing it ff as ne s wn. Plagiarism is literally theft. In yur discussins and/r yur papers, it is unacceptable t cpy wrd fr wrd withut qutatin marks and the surce f the qutatin. We use the APA Style Manual f the American Psychlgical Assciatin as a guide fr all writing assignments. Qutes shuld be used sparingly. It is expected that yu will summarize r paraphrase ideas giving apprpriate credit t the surce bth in the bdy f yur paper and the reference list. Papers are subject t be evaluated fr riginality via Bb Turnitin. Resurces t help yu understand this plicy better are available at the ASU Writing Center STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES 1. Angel State University is cmmitted t the principle that n qualified individual with a disability shall, n the basis f disability, be excluded frm participatin in r be denied the benefits f the services, prgrams, r activities f the university, r be subjected t discriminatin by the university, as prvided by the Americans with Disabilities Act f 1990 (ADA), the Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act f 2008 (ADAAA), and subsequent legislatin. 2. The Office f Student Affairs is the designated campus department charged with the respnsibility f reviewing and authrizing requests fr reasnable accmmdatins based n a disability, and it is the student s respnsibly t initiate such a request by cntacting the Office f Student Affairs, University Center, Rm 112 at (325) r (325) (TDD/FAX) r by at studentservices@angel.edu t begin the prcess. The Office f Student Affairs will establish the particular dcumentatin requirements necessary fr the varius types f disabilities. Reasnable accmmdatins will be made fr students determined t be disabled r wh have dcumented disabilities. INCOMPLETE GRADE POLICY (OP Grading Prcedures) It is plicy that incmplete grades be reserved fr student illness r persnal misfrtune. Please cntact faculty if yu have serius illness r a persnal misfrtune that wuld keep yu frm cmpleting curse wrk. Dcumentatin may be required. STUDENT ABSENCE FOR OBSERVANCE OF RELIGIOUS HOLY DAYS A student wh intends t bserve a religius hly day shuld make that intentin knwn in writing t the instructr prir t the absence. Please see ASU Operating Plicy COPYRIGHT POLICY Students fficially enrlled in this curse shuld make nly ne printed cpy f the given articles and/r chapters. Yu are expressly prhibited frm distributing r reprducing any prtin f curse readings in printed r electrnic frm withut written permissin frm the cpyright hlders r publishers. SYLUS CHANGES The faculty member reserves the ptin t make changes as necessary t this syllabus and the curse cntent. If changes becme necessary during this curse, the faculty will ntify students f such changes by , curse annuncements, and/r via a discussin bard annuncement. It is the student s respnsibility t lk fr such cmmunicatins abut the curse n a daily basis.

3 This curse is graded strictly n pints NOT percentages. The amunt f pints yu earn determines yur grade in the curse. I DO NOT ROUND UP GRADES at the end f the semester. It is yur respnsibility t keep track f the ttal curse pints yu have accumulated and take advantage f the bnus pints available in the curse. Curse Evaluatin and Grading Scale: 6 Quizzes (100 pints each) 600 pts A: pints Final Exam 200 pts B: pints PhILS Labs (10 pts each) 160 pts C: pints LearnSmart Assignments 325 pts D: pints Bdy Viz Labs 124 pts F: pints and belw Wrksheets 191 pts TOTAL: 1600 pts Tentative Class Schedule Date Tpic Chapter 1/14/19 Intrductin / Syllabus 1/16/19 Endcrine System 17 1/17/19 Endcrine System Ph.I.L.S Lab 19 Due 17 1/18/19 Endcrine System LearnSmart 1 Due 17 1/21/19 N Class- MLK Day 17 1/23/19 Endcrine System Ph.I.L.S Lab 20 Due 17 1/24/19 Cardivascular System: Bld Ph.I.L.S Lab 34 Due 18 1/25/19 Cardivascular System: Bld 18 1/28/19 Cardivascular System: Bld LearnSmart 2 Due 18 1/30/19 Cardivascular System: Bld Ph.I.L.S Lab 36 Due 18 1/31/19 Cardivascular System: Heart Ph.I.L.S Lab 22 Due Ph.I.L.S Lab 23 Due 2/1/19 Cardivascular System: Heart Ph.I.L.S Lab 24 Due 19 2/4/19 Cardivascular System: Heart LearnSmart 3 Due 19 2/6/19 Cardivascular System: Heart 19 2/7/19 Cardivascular System: Heart Ph.I.L.S Lab 26 Due 19 2/8/19 QUIZ /11/19 Cardivascular System: Vessels and Circulatin Ph.I.L.S Lab 31 Due 20 2/13/19 Cardivascular System: Vessels and Circulatin Ph.I.L.S Lab 32 Due 20 19

4 2/14/19 Cardivascular System: Vessels and Circulatin 20 Ph.I.L.S Lab 33 Due 2/15/19 NO CLASS LearnSmart 4 Due 20 2/18/19 Lymphatic System 21 2/20/19 Lymphatic System 21 2/21/19 Lymphatic System LearnSmart 5 Due 21 2/22/19 QUIZ /25/19 Immune System 22 2/27/19 Immune System 22 2/28/19 Immune System LearnSmart 6 Due 22 3/1/19 Respiratry System Ph.I.L.S Lab 37 Due 23 3/4/19 Respiratry System Ph.I.L.S Lab 38 Due 23 3/6/19 Respiratry System LearnSmart 7 Due 23 3/7/19 Respiratry System Ph.I.L.S Lab 40 Due 23 3/8/19 QUIZ /11/19 SPRING BREAK - N Class 3/13/19 SPRING BREAK - N Class 3/14/19 SPRING BREAK - N Class 3/15/19 SPRING BREAK - N Class 3/18/19 Urinary System 24 3/20/19 Urinary System 24 3/21/19 Urinary System Ph.I.L.S Lab 42 Due 24 3/22/19 Urinary System LearnSmart 8 Due 24 3/25/19 Fluid and Electrlytes 25 3/27/19 Fluid and Electrlytes 25 3/28/19 Fluid and Electrlytes LearnSmart 9 Due 25 3/29/19 QUIZ /1/10 Digestive System 26 4/3/19 Digestive System 26 4/4/19 Digestive System Ph.I.L.S Lab 41 Due 26 4/5/19 Digestive System 26 4/8/19 Digestive System LearnSmart 10 Due 26 4/10/19 Nutritin and Metablism 27 4/11/19 Nutritin and Metablism 27

5 4/12/19 Nutritin and Metablism LearnSmart 11 Due 27 4/15/19 QUIZ /17/19 Reprductive System 28 4/18/19 Reprductive System 28 4/19/19 Reprductive System 28 4/22/19 Reprductive System LearnSmart 12 Due 28 4/24/19 Develpment, Pregnancy, & Heredity 29 4/25/19 Develpment, Pregnancy, & Heredity 29 4/26/19 Develpment, Pregnancy, & Heredity 29 4/29/19 Develpment, Pregnancy, & Heredity LearnSmart 13 Due 29 5/1/19 QUIZ /2/19 Review /3/19 Review /8/19 Cumulative Final Exam 10:30am-12:30pm Assignments Ph.I.L.S. Labs: 16 labs wrth 10 pints each fr a ttal f 160 pints These physilgy interactive lab simulatins are designed t help yu better understand different physilgical cncepts discussed this semester. There are 16 labs cvered this semester. Each lab is wrth 10 pints fr a ttal f 160 pints. Each lab cnsists f an activity and then a pst-lab quiz. Yu must then save a cpy f yur lab results and them t me by the indicated due date fund in the curse syllabus. When yu save yur lab results, yu must use the fllwing frmat: PhILS, the Lab Number_the Semester and Year_ Yur first initial and last name. Fr example: PhILS1_SP2019_CPrcter-Willman. LearnSmart Assignments: 25 pints each fr a ttal f 325 pints Each chapter cvered this semester has a LearnSmart assignment assciated with it. Each assignment is wrth 25 pints. These assignments shuld be cmpleted individually and will take n average minutes t cmplete. These questins will test yur knwledge n the tpics discussed in class and will refer yu t readings in the text that will help yu better cmprehend tpics in class that are challenging fr yu. The LearnSmart assignments typically give yu a windw f 3-4 days t cmplete. N late assignments will be accepted and each assignment clses at 11:59 f the assigned date. Practice Questins Chapters Bnus Pints Pssible These practice questins are ptinal t help yu review and prepare fr yur exams. This is yur chance t receive bnus pints in the curse fr cmpletin f the questins. Each chapter is wrth up t 10 bnus pints (130 ttal bnus pints pssible). All practice questins are due by 8:00AM n the day f the crrespnding quiz. Fr example, the practice questins fr chapters 17, 18, and 19 are due n 2/8/19 at 8AM. There will be n exceptins and there will be n ther bnus pints awarded during the semester.

6 Chapter Objectives Chapter 17 Describe the general features f the endcrine system, including hw hrmnes are transprted between an endcrine gland and its target rgans. Cmpare and cntrast the actins f the endcrine system and the nervus system t cntrl bdy functin. Describe the general functins cntrlled by the endcrine system. Identify the majr endcrine glands and their lcatin within the bdy. Explain the three reflex mechanisms fr regulating secretin f hrmnes. Name the three structural categries f circulating hrmnes, and give examples within each categry. Distinguish the hrmnes that are lipid-sluble frm thse that are water-sluble. Describe the general structure, frmatin, and functin f lcal hrmnes. Cmpare autcrine and paracrine signaling that ccurs thrugh lcal hrmnes. Cmpare the transprt f lipid-sluble hrmnes with that f water-sluble hrmnes. Describe the tw primary factrs that affect the cncentratin level f a circulating hrmne. Explain what is meant by the half0life f a hrmne. Describe hw lipid-sluble hrmnes reach their target cell receptrs and the type f cellular change that initiate. Describe hw water-sluble hrmnes induce cellular change in their target cells. Describe the cnditins that influence the number f receptrs available fr a specific hrmne. Define up-regulatin and dwn regulatin. Cmpare and cntrast the three types f hrmne interactins. Describe the anatmic relatinship between the hypthalamus and the pituitary gland. Identify the specific structures assciated with the psterir pituitary and the anterir pituitary. Explain hw the hypthalamus regulates the release f the tw hrmnes frm the psterir pituitary gland, and describe the general functins f each. List the hrmnes released frm the hypthalamus that cntrl the anterir pituitary. Explain hw the hypthalamus cntrls the release f hrmnes frm the anterir pituitary and the general functins f each. Describe hw the release f grwth hrmne is regulated. Describe the effects f grwth hrmne n its primary target rgans. Describe thyrid gland lcatin and anatmy. Identify the tw specific types f endcrine cells within the thyrid and the specific hrmne prduced by each. Explain the hmestatic system invlving thyrid hrmne. Explain the rle f calcitnin in regulating bld calcium. Describe the structure and lcatin f the adrenal glands. Name the three znes f the adrenal crtex and the hrmnes prduced in each zne. Describe the hmestatic system invlving crtisl. Describe the grss anatmy and cellular structure f the pancreas. Identify the primary types f pancreatic islet cells and the hrmnes they prduce. Describe the actin f insulin in lwering bld glucse cncentratin. Explain the actin f glucagn in raising bld glucse cncentratin. Describe the general structure, lcatin, and functin f the pineal gland. Describe the general structure, lcatin, and functin f the parathyrid glands. Identify and prvide a descriptin f the general functin f the hrmne(s) released frm each f the rgans discussed in this sectin. (Thymus, Heart, Kidneys, Liver, Stmach & Small Intestine, Skin, & Adipse Cnnective Tissue). Describe hw endcrine activity changes as peple age. Chapter 18 Describe the general functins f bld. Name six characteristics that describe bld, and explain the significance f each t health and hmestasis. List the three cmpnents f a centrifuged bld sample.

7 Define hematcrit, and explain hw the medical definitin differs frm the clinical usage. Name the three frmed elements f the bld, and cmpare their relative abundance. Define cllid smtic pressure Identify the varius types f plasma prteins, and explain the general functin f each. List disslved substances in plasma by categry. Define hempiesis, and explain the rle f clny-stimulating factrs. Describe the fur cellular stages f erythrpiesis. Cmpare the prductin f granulcytes, mncytes, and lymphcytes in leukpiesis. Summarize the prcess by which platelets are frmed in thrmbpiesis. Describe the structure f erythrcytes. List the events by which erythrcyte prductin is stimulated. Explain the prcess by which erythrcyte cmpnents are recycled. Cmpare and cntrast the different bld types and their imprtance when transfusing bld. Explain the main functin f leukcytes. Distinguish between granulcytes and agranulcytes, and cmpare and cntrast the varius types. Explain what is meant by a differential cunt and hw it is clinically useful. Explain the structure and functin f platelets. Describe vascular spasm, the first phase f hemstasis. Name cnditins that bring abut vascular spasm. Describe what happens when platelets encunter damage in a bld vessel. Cmpare and cntrast the intrinsic pathway and the extrinsic pathway fr activating bld cltting. Describe events in the cmmn pathway. Discuss the survival respnse that ccurs when bld lss exceeds 10%. Explain the prcesses f clt retractin and fibrinlysis. Describe when and hw bld is frmed in the embry, fetus, childhd, and adulthd. List sme cnditins that ccur with the bne marrw and bld in the elderly. Chapter 19 Describe the general functin f the cardivascular system. Differentiate amng the three primary types f bld vessels. Describe the general structure and functin f the heart. Cmpare and cntrast pulmnary circulatin and systemic circulatin f the cardivascular system. Trace bld flw thrugh bth circulatins. Describe the lcatin and psitin f the heart in the thracic cavity. List the structural cmpnents f the pericardium. Describe the functin f the pericardium and the purpse f the serus fluid within the pericardial cavity. Cmpare the superficial features f the anterir and psterir aspects f the heart. Name the three layers f the heart wall and the tissue cmpnents f each. Characterize the fur chambers f the heart and their functins. Cmpare and cntrast the structure and functin f the tw types f heart valves. Describe the lcatin and functin f the fibrus skeletn. Describe the general structure f cardiac muscle. Explain the intercellular structures f cardiac muscles. Discuss hw cardiac muscle meets its energy needs. Identify the crnary arteries, and describe the specific areas f the heart supplied by their majr branches. Explain the significance f crnary arteries as functinal end arteries. Describe bld flw thrugh the crnary arteries. Identify the crnary veins, and describe the specific areas f the heart drained by their majr branches. Identify and lcate the cmpnents f the heart s cnductin system. Cmpare and cntrast parasympathetic and sympathetic innervatin f the heart. Describe a ndal cell at rest. Define autrhythmicity.

8 Describe the steps fr SA ndal cells t spntaneusly deplarize and serve as the pacemaker cells. Describe the spread f the actin ptential thrugh the heart s cnductin system. Describe the cnditins at the sarclemma f cardiac muscle cells at rest. List the electrical events f an actin ptential that ccur at the sarclemma. Briefly summarize the mechanical events f muscle cntractin. Define refractry perid. Explain the significance f the plateau phase. Identify the cmpnents f an ECG recrding. Identify the tw prcesses within the heart that ccur due t pressure changes assciated with the cardiac cycle. List the five phases f the cardiac cycle. List and describe what ccurs during the five phases f the cardiac cycle. Explain the significance f ventricular balance. Define cardiac utput. Explain what is meant by cardiac reserve. Define chrntrpic agents, and describe hw they affect heart rate. Discuss hw autnmic reflexes alter heart rate. List the three variables that may influence strke vlume. Define each f the three variables, and describe the factrs that influence each variable and hw each variable affects strke vlume. Summarize the variables that influence cardiac utput. Explain hw pstnatal heart structures develp frm the primitive heart tube. Describe septal defects that may ccur during develpment. Chapter 20 Describe the three tunics cmmn t mst vessels. Explain the distinguishing features f the tunics fund in arteries, capillaries, and veins. Distinguish amng elastic arteries, muscular arteries, and arteriles. Describe the general anatmic structure and functin f capillaries. Cmpare the anatmic structure, functin, and lcatin f cntinuus capillaries, fenestrated capillaries, and sinusids. Trace the mvement f bld thrugh a capillary bed. Describe the structure and general functin f veins. Explain hw veins serve as a bld reservir fr the cardivascular system. Cmpare and cntrast the simple and alternative pathways f bld vessels. Describe the relatinship f the ttal crss-sectinal area and velcity f bld flw. Predict the significance f slw bld flw in the capillaries. Explain the prcess f diffusin and vesicular transprt between capillaries and tissues. Explain the prcesses f bulk flw, filtratin, and reabsrptin. Cmpare and cntrast hydrstatic pressure and cllid smtic pressure in the capillaries. Define net filtratin pressure (NFP). Calculate net filtratin pressure fr bth the arterial end and the venus end f a capillary. Explain the lymphatic system s rle at the capillary bed. Describe what is meant by degree f vascularizatin. Explain the prcess f angigenesis and hw it aids perfusin. Describe the mygenic respnse that maintains nrmal bld flw thrugh a tissue. Cmpare and cntrast a vasdilatr and a vascnstrictr. Explain hw a tissue autregulates lcal bld flw based n metablic needs. Describe hw lcal bld flw is altered by tissue damage and as part f the bdy s defense. Explain the general relatinship f ttal bld flw t lcal bld flw. Define bld pressure and bld pressure gradient. Cmpare and cntrast bld pressure and bld pressure gradients in the arteries, capillaries, and veins. Calculate pulse pressure and mean arterial pressure (MAP) in the arteries.

9 Explain the mechanisms that help vercme the small pressure gradient in veins t return bld t the heart. Define resistance, and explain hw it is influenced by bld viscsity, vessel length, and vessel radius. Explain the relatinship f bth the bld pressure gradient and resistance t ttal bld flw. Discuss why bld pressure increases with increased resistance in the systemic circulatin. Describe the anatmic cmpnents assciated with regulating bld pressure thrugh shrt-term mechanisms. Explain the autnmic reflexes that alter bld pressure. Describe the hrmnes that regulate bld pressure. Explain the renin-angitensin system and its influence n bld pressure. Cntrast the effects f angitensin II, aldsterne, and antidiuretic hrmne n bld pressure with thse f arterial natriuretic peptide. Cmpare ttal bld flw and distributin at rest and during exercise. Trace the pathway f vessels frm the right ventricle t the lungs and back t the left atrium. Identify features f the pulmnary circulatin that distinguish it frm systemic circulatin. List the arteries that transprt bld away frm the left ventricle f the heart t the majr areas f the bdy. Name the veins that return bld frm the systemic circulatin t the right atrium f the heart. Name the arteries and veins assciated with the head and neck structures. Diagram and explain the cerebral arterial circle and its functin. Describe the general structure and functin f dural venus sinuses. Describe the pairs f arteries that supply the thracic wall. Discuss the arteries that supply the abdminal wall. List veins that drain the thracic and abdminal walls and delineate their pathways. Describe the vessels that supply and drain the lungs, esphagus, and diaphragm. Name the three majr arteries that branch frm the descending arta t supply the gastrintestinal tract, and list their majr branches. Explain the functin f the hepatic prtal system. Trace the rute f bld frm the gastrintestinal tract t the inferir vena cava. Describe the arteries and veins that supply and drain the adrenal glands, kidneys, and gnads. Name the main vessels assciated with the pelvis and perineum. Trace the arteries f the upper limb frm the subclavian artery t the fingers. Cmpare and cntrast the superficial venus drainage and the deep venus drainage f the upper limb. Trace the arteries f the lwer limb frm the external iliac artery t the tes. Cmpare and cntrast the superficial venus drainage and the deep venus drainage f the lwer limb. Trace the pathway f bld circulatin in the fetus. Describe the changes that ccur after the baby is brn and must utilize the pulmnary circulatin. Chapter 21 Describe lymph and its cntents. Discuss the lcatin and anatmic structure f lymphatic capillaries. Explain hw fluid enters lymphatic capillaries. Explain the mechanisms that mve lymph thrugh lymphatic vessels, trunks, and ducts. Name the five types f lymphatic trunks and the regins f the bdy frm which they drain lymph. Describe the regins that are drained by the right lymphatic duct and by the thracic duct. Name the tw categries f lymphatic tissue and rgans, and identify cmpnents f the bdy that belng t each categry. Describe the lcatin and general functin f red bne marrw. Identify the tw majr types f lymphcytes. Describe the structure and general functin f the thymus. Describe the structure f lymph ndes. Explain the functin f lymph ndes. Describe the spleen and its lcatin.

10 Distinguish between white pulp and red pulp. List the functins f the spleen. Identify the main grups f tnsils and their lcatin and functin. Describe the cmpsitin f individual lymphatic ndules. Cmpare the lcatins f MALT and Peyer patches. Chapter 22 Cmpare and cntrast the five majr classes f infectius agents. Describe prins, and name a disease they cause. List the types f leukcytes f the immune system, and describe where they may be fund. Define cytkines, and describe their similarities t hrmnes. List the general categries f cytkines. Cmpare and cntrast the primary features f innate and adaptive immunity. Describe the physical, chemical, and bilgical barriers t entry f harmful agents int the bdy. Describe the cells that functin as part f the nnspecific internal defenses in prviding innate immunity. Explain the general functin f interferns. Define the cmplement system, and describe hw it is activated. Describe the fur majr means by which cmplement participates in prviding innate immunity. Define inflammatin, and discuss the basic steps invlved, including the frmatin f exudate and its rle in remving harmful substances. Describe the benefits f inflammatin. List the cardinal signs f inflammatin, and explain why each ccurs. Define a fever, and describe hw it ccurs. Lis the benefits and risks f a fever. Describe the features f an antigen, and explain what is meant by antigenic determinant. Explain immungenicity, and list attributes that affect it. Discuss hw haptens stimulate immune respnses. Describe receptrs f bth T-lymphcytes and B-lymphcytes. Define antigen presentatin. Describe antigen-presenting cells, and list cells that sever this functin. Explain the prcess f frmatin f MHC class I mlecules in nucleated cells and MHC class II mlecules in prfessinal antigen-presenting cells. Diagram the interactin f TCR and CD receptrs f a T-Lymphcyte with antigen assciated with the MHC mlecules f ther cells. Identify the three significant events that ccur in the lifetime f a lymphcyte. Explain hw T-lymphcytes mature. Cmpare and cntrast psitive and negative selectin f T-lymphcytes and what is meant by central tlerance. Explain why T-lymphcytes leaving the thymus are called bth immuncmpetent and naïve. Describe the frmatin and functin f T-lymphcytes (Tregs) in peripheral tlerance. Describe hw bth helper T-lymphcytes and cyttxic T-lymphcytes are activated, including the specific rle f IL-2 in bth activatins. Cmpare the activatin f B-lymphcytes with that f T-lymphcytes. Describe lymphcytes recirculatin, and explain its general functin. Explain the effectr respnse f helper T-lymphcytes. Explain hw an unhealthy cell is destryed by cyttxic T-lymphcytes. Explain why the prcess f T-lymphcytes are cllectively called the cell-mediated branch f adaptive immunity. Describe the functin f plasma cells in the effectr respnse f B-lymphcytes. Define antibdy titer Describe the general structure f an immunglbulin mlecule, including its tw functinal regins. List the functins f the antigen-binding site and Fc regin f antibdies, and briefly describe hw each ccurs.

11 Describe the structure, lcatin, and specific functin f the five majr classes f immunglbulins. Define immunlgic memry, and explain hw it ccurs. Discuss the difference between the primary respnse and the secndary respnse t antigen expsure. Define active immunity and passive immunity. Describe hw bth active and passive immunity can be acquired naturally and artificially. Chapter 23 State the functin f the respiratry system. Distinguish between the structural rganizatin and the functinal rganizatin f the respiratry system. Describe the structure f the mucsa that lines the respiratry tract and the structural changes bserved alng its length. Explain the functin f mucus prduced by the mucsa. Describe the structure and functin f the nse. Prvide a general descriptin f the structures and functin f the nasal cavity. Describe the structure and functin f the fur paired paranasal sinuses. Cmpare the three regins f the pharynx, and describe their assciated structures. Describe the general functins and structure f the larynx. Explain hw the larynx functins in sund prductin. Describe the structure f the trachea. Explain the structure and functin f the tracheal cartilages. Describe the structural subdivisins f the brnchial tree. Explain the prcesses f brnchcnstrictin and brnchdilatin. Describe the structure and functin f the cmpnents f the respiratry zne. List three types f cells fund in alveli, and describe the functin f each. Explain the structure f the respiratry membrane. Describe the lcatin and general structure f the lungs. Cmpare and cntrast the right versus left lung. Distinguish between the tw types f bld circulatin thrugh the lungs. Describe the innervatin f lung structures by the autnmic nervus system. Describe the pleural membranes and pleural cavity. Explain the functin f serus fluid in the pleural cavity. Explain the anatmical prperties that keep lungs inflated. Give an verview f the prcess f pulmnary ventilatin. Explain hw pressure gradients are established and result in pulmnary ventilatin. State the relatinship between pressure and vlume as described by Byle s law. Distinguish between quit and frced breathing. Describe the anatmic structures invlved in regulating breathing. Explain the physilgic events assciated with cntrlling quite breathing. Explain the different reflexes that alter breathing rate and depth. Distinguish between nervus system cntrl f structures f the respiratry system and nervus system cntrl f structures invlved in breathing. Define airflw. Explain hw pressure gradients and resistance determine airflw. Distinguish between pulmnary ventilatin and alvelar ventilatin, and discuss the significance f each. Explain the relatinship between anatmic dead space and physilgic dead space. Define the fur different respiratry vlume measurements. Explain the fur respiratry capacities that are calculated frm the vlume measurements. Give the meaning f frced expiratry vlume (FEV) and maximum vluntary ventilatin (MVV). Define partial pressure and the mvement f gases relative t a partial pressure gradient. Describe the partial pressures that are relevant t gas exchange. Explain the laws that gvern gas slubility. Describe alvelar gas exchange and the partial pressure gradients respnsible.

12 Name the tw anatmic features f the respiratry membrane that cntribute t efficient alvelar gas exchange. Explain ventilatin-perfusin cupling and hw it maximizes alvelar gas exchange. Explain the partial pressure gradients between systemic cells and the bld in capillaries. Differentiate between alvelar and systemic gas exchange. Explain why hemglbin is essential t xygen transprt. Describe the three ways carbn dixide is transprted in the bld. - Explain the cnversin f CO 2 t and frm HCO 3 within erythrcytes. Name the three substances carried by hemglbin. Explain the significance f the xygen-hemglbin saturatin curve fr bth alvelar and systemic gas exchange. Explain hw hyperventilatin and hypventilatin influence the chemical cmpsitin f bld. Describe hw breathing rate and depth affect venus return f bld and lymph. Explain the changes in breathing that accmpany exercise. Chapter 24 Identify the structures that cmpse the urinary system, and prvide a descriptin f the general functin f each. List the functins f the kidneys. Describe the lcatin f the kidneys in the bdy. Name and describe the fur tissue layers that surrund and supprt the kidneys. Identify the tw distinct regins f the kidney and the cmpnents f each. Explain the relatinship amng minr calyces, majr calyces, and renal pelvis. List the structures f the kidneys innervated by the sympathetic divisin. Describe a renal crpuscle and its cmpnents. Identify the lcatin, and describe the structure, f the three cmpnents f a renal tubule. Name and cmpare the tw types f nephrns and the functinal differences between them. State the relatinship between cllecting tubules and cllecting ducts. Identify the tw types f specialized epithelial cells fund within distal cnvluted tubules and cllecting tubules and ducts. Describe the lcatin and structure f the juxtaglmerular apparatus. Explain the tw actins f granular cells. Describe the functin f the cells f the macula densa. Name the arteries that supply the kidney, in sequence frm largest t smallest. Describe the tw capillary beds thrugh which bld must pass in the kidney. List the veins thrugh which bld leaves the kidney, in sequence frm smallest t largest. Distinguish amng filtrate, tubular fluid, and urine. Trace the fluid frm its frmatin at the renal crpuscle until it exits the bdy thrugh the urethra. Cmpare and cntrast the renal prcesses f filtratin, reabsrptin, and secretin. Describe the three layers that make up the glmerular filtratin membrane. Give examples f substances that are freely filtered, that are nt filtered, and that are filtered in a limited way. Describe the phagcytic functin f mesangial cells. Define glmerular hydrstatic pressure (HP g) and explain why it is higher than the pressure in ther capillaries. Name tw pressures that ppse HP g. Explain hw t calculate the net filtratin pressure. Define glmerular filtratin rate and the factrs that influence it. Describe what is meant by intrinsic and extrinsic cntrls, and give examples f bth. Cmpare and cntrast the mygenic respnse and the tubulglmerular feedback mechanism, which are invlved in renal autregulatin. Explain the effects f sympathetic divisin stimulatin n the glmerular filtratin rate. Describe the effects f atrial natriuretic peptide n the glmerular filtratin rate. Describe five characteristics and cnditins that affect tubular reabsrptin and secretin. Define the transprt maximum f a substance. Explain what is meant by renal threshld.

13 Explain the reabsrptin f nutrients such as glucse. Describe the prcess by which prtein is transprted ut f the filtrate and int the bld. List substances fr which reabsrptin is regulated. Describe hw the reabsrptin f sdium, ptassium, calcium, and phsphate ccurs. Describe the reabsrptin f water, and cmpare hw it is regulated by the actins f aldsterne and antidiuretic hrmne. Describe hw ph is regulated by intercalated cells. Identify the three nitrgenus waste prducts, and describe the fate f each. Give examples f ther materials eliminated by kidneys. Explain what is meant by the cuntercurrent multiplier that ccurs within the nephrn lp. Describe the cuntercurrent exchange system that maintains the cncentratin gradient. Discuss the cntributin f urea cycling t the cncentratin gradient. Describe the prcedure fr measuring the glmerular filtratin rate. Explain the frmula fr calculating the glmerular filtratin rate. Define renal plasma clearance and its imprtance. Identify the substance that may be measured t estimate the glmerular filtratin rate. Describe the cmpsitin f urine and its characteristics. Explain what is meant by specific gravity. Describe the structure and functin f the ureters. Explain the structure f the urinary bladder. List distinguishing characteristics f the female urethra and the male urethra. Define micturitin. Cmpare and cntrast the strage reflex and the micturitin reflex. Explain cnscius cntrl ver micturitin. Chapter 25 State the percentage f bdy fluid, and explain the significance f an individual s percentage relative t fluid balance. List the factrs that influence the percentage f bdy fluid. Describe the tw majr bdy fluid cmpartments, and cmpare their chemical cmpsitins. Explain hw fluid mves between the majr bdy fluid cmpartments. Define fluid balance. List the surces f fluid intake. Distinguish between the categries f water lss. Name the different causes f fluid imbalance. Cmpare and cntrast the different types f fluid imbalances. Explain what is meant by fluid sequestratin. Describe the stimuli that increase fluid intake. Explain the cnditins and stimuli that decrease fluid intake. Identify the fur hrmnes that are invlved in regulating fluid utput. Describe the difference between a nnelectrlyte and an electrlyte. Explain the general rle f electrlytes in fluid balance. List the six majr electrlytes fund in bdy fluids, ther than H + and HCO 3-. Explain why Na + is a critical electrlyte in the bdy. Describe the variables that influence K + distributin. Identify the main lcatins, functins, and means f regulatin fr each f the cmmn electrlytes. Explain he means by which angitensin II frmatin can be triggered. List the fur primary effects f angitensin II. Explain hw release f antidiuretic hrmne (ADH) ccurs frm the psterir pituitary. Describe the three actins f antidiuretic hrmne. List three cnditins that lead t aldsterne release. Describe the changes that ccur in respnse t binding f aldsterne by kidney cells. Describe the stimulus fr the release f atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and its three actins. Explain the ways in which the effects f atrial natriuretic peptide differ frm the effects f angitensin II, ADH, and aldsterne.

14 Distinguish between the tw categries f acids in the bdy. Name the tw buffering systems that regulate each categry. List the varius surces f fixed acid. Describe hw the kidneys cunteract increasing bld H +. Explain hw the kidneys functin in respnse t decreasing bld H +. Explain the nrmal relatinship between breathing rate and acid-base balance. Describe the cmpnents f the prtein buffering system and where and hw they help prevent ph changes. Explain the reactins f the phsphate buffering system within the ICF. Discuss hw the bicarbnate buffering system maintains acid-base balance in the ECF. Explain acid-base disturbance, cmpensatin, and acid-base imbalance. Define respiratry acidsis, identify sme f the causes f this type f acid-base disturbance, and explain hw it ccurs. Explain why infants are mre susceptible t respiratry acidsis. Define respiratry alkalsis, identify sme f the causes f this type f acid-base disturbance, and explain hw it ccurs. Explain hw metablic acid-base disturbances differ frm respiratry acid-base disturbances. Define bth metablic acidsis and metablic alkalsis, identify sme f the causes f each type f acid-base disturbance, and explain hw each ccurs. Describe renal and respiratry cmpensatin. Chapter 26 Identify the six rgans that make up the gastrintestinal (GI) tract. List the accessry digestive rgans and structures invlved in the digestive prcess. List and describe the six general functins f the digestive system. List and describe the fur tunics (layers) that make up the gastrintestinal wall. Briefly describe the general prcess f abrtin. Distinguish the actin f the musularis mucsae frm that f the musularis tunic. Describe the general functin f the enteric nervus system and autnmic nervus system in the regulatin f the digestive system. Cmpare lng reflexes and shrt reflexes that regulate the digestive system. List the majr hrmnes that regulate the prcesses f digestin. Describe the structure f the serus membranes assciated with the GI tract. Distinguish between intraperitneal and retrperitneal rgans. Explain the functin f the mesentery, and describe the five individual mesenteries f the abdminpelvic cavity. Describe the cmpnents f the upper gastrintestinal tract. Identify the anatmic structures f the ral cavity. Describe the structure and functin f salivary glands and hw the release f saliva is regulated. Explain the prcess f masticatin. Discuss the structure and develpment f the teeth. Discuss the anatmy f the pharynx and esphagus and their cmplementary activities in the prcess f swallwing. Describe the grss anatmy and histlgy f the stmach. Explain the tw general functinal activities f the stmach. Describe the phases that regulate mtility and secretin in the stmach. Describe the three cmpnents f the lwer gastrintestinal tract. Describe the anatmy f the small intestine. List the glands fund in the small intestine and their secretins. Explain mtility within the small intestine. Describe the accessry digestive rgans assciated with the small intestine and the cntributins f each t digestive prcesses. Explain hw bth bld and bile flw thrugh the liver. Discuss the regulatin f the accessry digestive glands assciated with the small intestine. Name the three majr regins f the large intestine and fur segments f the cln f the large intestine.

15 Explain the distinguishing histlgic features f the large intestine. Describe the bacterial actin that takes place in the large intestine. Name the three classes f carbhydrates. Explain the prcessing in the ral cavity that initiates carbhydrate digestin. Describe the chemical digestin f carbhydrates that ccurs in the small intestine. Identify the enzyme that initiates prtein digestin in the stmach, and explain its activatin and actin. Explain why the prtelytic enzymes f the stmach and pancreas are synthesized in inactive frms. Describe the chemical digestin f prteins that ccurs in the small intestine. Explain the rle f bile salts in mechanical digestin f lipids and the rle f pancreatic lipase in the chemical digestin f triglycerides. Discuss the prcess by which lipids are absrbed. Describe the digestin f nucleic acids. Describe the absrptin f water, electrlytes, and vitamins. Explain the details f vitamin B 12 absrptin. Chapter 27 Define bth nutritin and nutrients. Distinguish macrnutrients frm micrnutrients and essential frm nnessential nutrients. Explain the meaning f recmmended daily allwance (RDA) Identify the categries that are dietary surces f carbhydrates, and give examples f each categry. Identify the types and dietary surces f triglycerides, and describe their functins. Describe the surces and functins f chlesterl. Describe why prtein is required in ur diet and the general amunt that is needed. Explain the difference between a cmplete prtein and an incmplete prtein. Discuss nitrgen balance, and include the difference between a psitive and negative nitrgen balance. Distinguish between water-sluble and fat-sluble vitamins. List examples f hw bth water-sluble vitamins and fat-sluble vitamins functin in the bdy. Describe the difference between essential and nn-essential vitamins. Define minerals, and list examples f hw minerals absrbed in the small intestine functin in the bdy. Distinguish between majr minerals and trace minerals. Describe MyPlate, which was develped by the USDA t help peple eat healthy. Identify the items that are included n a fd label. Explain when the absrptive state ccurs and hw nutrient levels are regulated during this time. Explain when the pstabsrptive state ccurs and hw nutrient levels are regulated during this time. Explain the relatinship f dietary intake f chlesterl and level f chlesterl synthesis in the liver. Define lipprtein, and prvide a general verview f their functin in the bdy. Describe the transprt f lipids within the bld. Identify and briefly describe the numerus rles f the liver in metablism. Describe where the fllwing nutrient mlecules enter the metablic pathway f cellular respiratin: glucse, the breakdwn prducts f triglycerides, and amin acids. Explain deaminatin f prteins. Describe the physilgical advantages f the ability t intercnvert nutrient bimlecules. Define metablic rate. Explain hw bth basal metablic rate and ttal metablic rate are measured and the variables that influence each. Define cre bdy temperature, and explain why it must be maintained. Explain the neural and hrmnal cntrls f temperature regulatin.

16 Chapter 28 List the similarities between the female and male reprductive systems. Identify the hrmnes respnsible fr initiating puberty (sexual maturatin) in females and males. Cmpare the cmpnents f the perineum in females and males. Distinguish between autsmes and sec chrmsmes. Explain why smatic cells cntain 2n chrmsmes but gametes must cntain n chrmsmes. Cmpare and cntrast meisis and mitsis. Describe events during interphase, befre cell divisin begins, and the specific steps f meisis. Explain the difference between hmlgus chrmsme pairs and sister chrmatids. Discuss why meisis I is termed reductin divisin. Describe the events f meisis II and the final utcme f the tw stages f meisis. Describe the grss and micrscpic anatmy f the vary. Cmpare the different types f varian fllicles that frm in the vary. List the hrmnes respnsible fr genesis, and explain each hrmne s effect n genesis. Identify the varian fllicles that develp befre birth and thse that frm after puberty. Describe the three phases f the varian cycle. Describe the anatmy and functin f the uterine tubes. List the functins f the uterus, and cmpare its three tunics. Explain the grss anatmy f the vagina. Cmpare the three phases f the uterine cycle. List and explain what hrmnes influence the events in each part f the varian cycle. Explain hw the varian cycle and uterine cycle are interrelated. Describe the cmpnents f the female external genitalia. Explain the grss anatmy f the mammary glands. Cmpare the hrmnes respnsible fr milk prductin and milk ejectin. Explain hw the female sexual respnse and rgasm is elicited. Describe the grss anatmy and functin f the scrtum. Describe the grss anatmy and micrscpic anatmy f the testes. Explain the prcess f spermatgenesis and spermigenesis. Cmpare and cntrast spermatgenesis with genesis. Explain the functin f each cmpnent f the ducts assciated with the male reprductive system. Trace the pathway that sperm travel thrugh the testes and duct system. Describe the anatmy and functin f the accessry glands. Cmpare and cntrast sperm, seminal fluid, and semen. List the majr cmpnents f semen and which accessry gland prduces each cmpnent. Describe the structure and functins f the penis. Cmpare and cntrast the prcesses f erectin and ejaculatin. Explain hw the male sexual respnse (and ejaculatin) is elicited. Cmpare and cntrast genetic versus phentypic sex. List the gene(s) respnsible fr prducing a phentypic male. Describe what anatmic structures are frmed frm the mesnephric and paramesnephric ducts. Describe the events that cause the female internal reprductive rgans t develp. Identify the hrmne respnsible fr inducing paramesnephric duct degeneratin, and identify the cells respnsible fr secreting this hrmne. List the cmmn primrdial external genitalia structures, and cmpare their develpment in females and males. Give the cmmn definitin fr puberty, and list the age and range during which it cmmnly ccurs. List sme f the cmmn develpmental events that ccur during puberty. Give the cmmn definitin and symptms fr menpause. Describe events f the male climacteric. Chapter 29 Define the prenatal perid, and identify the three shrter perids that ccur during the prenatal perid. Describe the events f fertilizatin.

17 Explain capacitatin f sperm and its relatinship t fertilizatin. Define cleavage, and explain when it ccurs. Cmpare and cntrast the structures f the zygte, mrula, and blastcyst. Define implantatin, and explain when it ccurs. Explain the physilgic significance f the syncytitrphblast s prductin f hcg. Describe the develpment f the bilaminar germinal disc. Name the three extraembrynic membranes, and summarize their functins. Cmpare the maternal and fetal prtins f the placenta. Describe the main functins f the placenta, and name the hrmnes that prmte its develpment. Describe the prcess f gastrulatin. List the three primary germ layers that cmpse the embry. Explain the prcess and the purpse f the flding f the embrynic disk. Describe hw the three primary germ layer differentiate. Define rgangenesis and explain the risk f teratgens during this perid. Describe the majr events that ccur during the fetal state f develpment. Cmpare and cntrast the first, secnd, and third trimesters f pregnancy. Discuss the critical effects f estrgen and prgesterne during pregnancy. Identify ther hrmnes whse levels are altered during pregnancy. Explain the changes t the uterus in a pregnant wman. Describe the hrmnes that affect mammary gland develpment during pregnancy. Describe the effects f HPL and ther hrmnes n the pregnant wman s ability t utilize glucse. List sme cmmn GI changes that ccur during pregnancy and their causes. List the cardivascular changes a wman typically exhibits during pregnancy. Explain the changes t the respiratry system during pregnancy. Describe the effects f pregnancy n the mther s urinary system. Explain the physilgic prcesses that initiate labr. Lis the signs and characteristics f false labr. Explain the signs and characteristics f true labr. Describe the psitive feedback mechanism f true labr. List the three stages f true labr and events f each stage. Describe the respiratry events that ccur as the newbrn adjusts t life utside f the uterus. Cmpare and cntrast the fetal circulatry pattern with the newbrn circulatry pattern. Cmpare and cntrast the hrmnal levels f a wman prir t birth and after birth. List the varius ways that the mther lses the excess fluids gained during pregnancy. Describe the prcess by which lactatin ccurs. Explain the mechanisms by which the uterus returns clse t its pre-pregnancy size. Becme familiar with cmmn genetic terminlgy. Cmpare and cntrast the types f inheritance patterns. Describe sex-linked inheritance, and give a clinical example f this type f inheritance. Explain hw the envirnment may influence genetic expressin.