Reconstruction of endosomal organization and function by a combination of ODE and agent-based modeling strategies

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1 Mayorga et al. Biology Direct (2018) 13:25 RESEARCH Open Access Reconstruction of endosomal organization and function by a combination of ODE and agent-based modeling strategies Luis S. Mayorga 1*, Ignacio Cebrian 1, Meghna Verma 2,3, Stefan Hoops 2,4 and Josep Bassaganya-Riera 2 Abstract Background: Reproducing cell processes using an in silico system is an essential tool for understanding the underlying mechanisms and emergent properties of this extraordinary complex biological machine. However, computational models are seldom applied in the field of intracellular trafficking. In a cell, numerous molecular interactions occur on the surface or in the interior of membrane-bound compartments that continually change position and undergo dynamic processes of fusion and fission. At present, the available simulation tools are not suitable to develop models that incorporate the dynamic evolution of the cell organelles. Results: We developed a modeling platform combining Repast (Agent-Based Modeling, ABM) and COPASI (Differential Equations, ODE) that can be used to reproduce complex networks of molecular interactions. These interactions occur in dynamic cell organelles that change position and composition over the course of time. These two modeling strategies are fundamentally different and comprise of complementary capabilities. The ODEs can easily model the networks of molecular interactions, signaling cascades, and complex metabolic reactions. On the other hand, ABM software is especially suited to simulate the movement, interaction, fusion, and fission of dynamic organelles. We used the combined ABM-ODE platform to simulate the transport of soluble and membrane-associated cargoes that move along an endocytic route composed of early, sorting, recycling and late endosomes. We showed that complex processes that strongly depend on transport can be modeled. As an example, the hydrolysis of a GM2-like glycolipid was programmed by adding a trans-golgi network compartment, lysosomal enzyme trafficking, endosomal acidification, and cholesterol processing to the simulation model. Conclusions: The model captures the highly dynamic nature of cell compartments that fuse and divide, creating different conditions for each organelle. We expect that this modeling strategy will be useful to understand the logic underlying the organization and function of the endomembrane system. Reviewers: This article was reviewed by Drs. Rafael Fernández-Chacón, James Faeder, and Thomas Simmen. Keywords: Intracellular transport, Agent-based modeling, Differential equation modeling, Endocytic pathway, Lipid metabolism, Rab domains * Correspondence: lmayorga@fcm.uncu.edu.ar; lmayorga@mendoza-conicet.gob.ar 1 Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, IHEM (Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, CONICET), Casilla de Correo 56, 5500 Mendoza, Argentina Full list of author information is available at the end of the article The Author(s) Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

2 Mayorga et al. Biology Direct (2018) 13:25 Page 2 of 21 Background Depict the fact that we have a detailed catalog of factors and processes necessary for intracellular transport, our understanding of the underlying molecular mechanism is still fragmentary and qualitative. Generally, models (following Gunawardena s definition for models: some form of symbolic representation of our assumptions about reality [1]) related to the movement of compounds along the endocytic pathway are informal ( one in which the symbols are mental, verbal, or pictorial, perhaps a scrawl of blobs and arrows on the whiteboard ; see Fig. 1a for an example). These informal models are powerful tools to envision potential molecular mechanisms, general cell strategies, and qualitative behaviors. However, they are difficult to validate (or falsify) because they are so vague that several alternative interpretations exists. For example, the brown arrows in Fig. 1a symbolizes the recycling and degradative pathways of an internalized molecule; however, they can also be interpreted as time and/or space fluxes. Moreover, it is not clear whether the depicted compartments remain stable or evolve as the cargoes are traveling along these two pathways. In brief, it is challenging to propose or construct models that describe the flux of cargoes through dynamic structures that continuously change shape, position, and composition. Mathematical models have proven to be useful tools for understanding the underlying mechanisms and emergent properties in cell biology. Excellent tools are available to represent and model complex biological pathways [2, 3]. However, in the cell, many molecular interactions occur on the surface or the interior of membrane-bound compartments that continuously change position and undergo the dynamic processes of fusion and fission. At present, the available simulation tools fail to incorporate the dynamic evolution of organelles. In particular, it is troublesome to simulate the trafficking of macromolecules along the endocytic and secretory pathways [4]. In this scenario, our aim is to develop a platform for intracellular transport modeling that combines Agent-Based Modeling (ABM) and Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE) that are able to handle the dynamic nature of organelles along with the complex network of molecular interactions that occur in individual structures. In particular, we focused on the endocytic route. Endocytosishasacentralroleinthephysiologyof the cell. It is required for the uptake of macromolecules to be processed in lysosomes, the internalization and recycling of receptors involved in several cell signaling cascades, and a myriad ofdiversefunctionsthat occur in these membrane-bound organelles. By functional and morphological criteria, the endocytic route is divided into several compartments. Early endosomes receive the material endocytosed by different mechanisms (clathrin-dependent and independent endocytosis, macropinocytosis, phagocytosis, to name a few). From this early compartment, the compounds can directly recycle back to the plasma membrane (early recycling) or can be transported to the sorting endosomes where the molecules are directed to their specific intracellular destinations. Several compounds are directed to the endosomal recycling center, located nearthenucleus,andresponsiblefortheslowrecycling to the cell surface. If the endocytosed materials are not sorted out from early endosomes, their final destination is the late endosomal/lysosomal compartment triggered by the maturation of early to late endosomes [5]. The presence of hydrolytic enzymes and acidic environment in the lysosomes promote the digestion of most of the biological macromolecules. To develop a formal model of the endocytic pathway, we utilized the concept that endosomes are characterized by their limiting membranes. Membrane domains are relatively stable structures that do not necessarily mix when residing side by side in the same organelle [6, 7]. Membrane domains can thus be considered as the key building blocks of the endomembrane system of the cell. Transport can be envisioned as the change in the limiting membrane of organelles carrying a cargo by means of mixing (fusion of organelles) and sorting (budding and fission of vesicles and tubules) processes. In addition, complex networks of molecular interactions change the protein and lipid composition of the limiting membrane of the organelles [8, 9]. Soluble cargoes that do not interact with the membranes are transported in the lumen of the organelles. During the budding of vesicles and tubules, these cargoes are partitioned in volumes proportional to those of the splitting structures; hence, very little is incorporated in the newly-formed membrane-rich structures whereas a large proportion is retained in the remaining round organelle that carries most of the total volume. Since tubules are key components of the recycling pathways, most soluble cargoes are delivered to the lysosomes [10]. On the contrary, membranebound factors travel through the endomembrane system according to their affinity for membrane domains that are sorted out during the budding of vesicles or tubules. Membrane association depends on specific interactions of tags coded in the cargo molecule with one or more of the large set of adaptor proteins present in the cell [11, 12]. In addition, lipids on the membranes undergo lateral phase separations, and membrane-anchored factors can also be recruited to specific lipids domains [13]. Depending on their protein and lipid composition, different membrane domains bind membrane-deforming protein complexes, such as COPs, clathrin, sorting nexins, ESCORT, etc.

3 Mayorga et al. Biology Direct (2018) 13:25 Page 3 of 21 Fig. 1 Model description. a Informal model for transport along the endocytic route. Different Rab domains characterize four organelles: early endosomes (RabA), sorting endosomes (RabB), recycling endosomes (RabC), and late endosomes (RabD). A trans-golgi network (TGN) is included as a RabE organelle for modeling transport of lysosomal enzymes (Figs. 7, 8 and 9). The straight lines represent microtubules that orientate the organelle movements. The brown arrows represent the movement of cargoes to recycling endosomes and to late endosomes/ lysosomes. b Fusion and asymmetric fission. A RabA (blue perimeter) endosome carrying a membrane-bound cargo (red internal circle) and a soluble cargo (green content) fuses with an empty RabB (cyan) endosome. The hybrid vesicle has enough membrane to embrace the volume of the original endosomes, to form an internal vesicle, and to grow a tubule. When the tubule is separated from the round organelle, it carried the RabB domain, the red cargo and an amount of soluble cargo proportional to its volume. At the bottom, the way these organelles are representation in the model. The red and green contents are shown in the interior of the RabA organelle (yellow content). The color of the endosomes corresponds to the prevailing Rab in each organelle. After fusion, the resulting organelle is shown as an ellipse representing the ellipsoid with a size, and area/volume ration of the fused organelle. The color is set to blue because it is the prevailing Rab domain in the organelle. The interior is set to light yellow, because of the dilution of the green and red contents, and a 1 character is plotted indicating that the organelle carries an internal vesicle. After fission, the round organelle is represented as a circle with a blue perimeter, a 1 character (the internal vesicle), and a light green internal color, showing that part of the soluble content and all the membrane cargo went to the tubule. The tubule is represented by an elongated ellipse, with a cyan color corresponding to the RabB domain, and an orange interior representing the red content and part of the green content. c Informal representation of the Rab dynamics operating in the model (cut-out switch, [22]). Each Rab domain stimulates its own activation. In addition, RabA promotes RabD activation and RabD inhibits RabA activation. This dynamic was programmed in COPASI and the species, reactions, kinetic functions, and parameters are shown in Table 3. d Diagram of the simulation. Initially, Repast builds a set of organelles specified by parameters and characteristics read from a file (Additional file 1). The program then initiates an iterative loop where each agent is interrogated about performing or not a series of actions and changing its properties accordingly. The simulation records the evolution of the system and receives instructions from the user by periodically writing and reading external files (Additional file 2)

4 Mayorga et al. Biology Direct (2018) 13:25 Page 4 of 21 [14 17]. The deformations lead to the sorting of membrane domains by budding of tubules or vesicles, or the isolation in intraluminal vesicles that are now separated from the membrane of the original organelle, carrying a subset of cargo molecules. Membrane domains depend on the coordinated activity of multiple factors, including several members of the Rab family [7, 18]. Perturbation of Rab functions, dramatically alters the intracellular transport of most of the cargoes [19, 20]. Rabs are small GTPases that act as molecular on/off switches, cycling between inactive (GDP-bound) and active (GTP-bound) states. They can be organized in cascades adding flexibility and regulation to the identity of membrane domains [5, 6, 21]. Furthermore, Rab proteins localize to specific membrane-bound compartments; hence, they can be used to identify specific membrane domains. The simulation implemented using the modeling platform reproduced many aspects of the endocytic transport. Enzymes, molecular pumps, structural proteins, and lipids can be included in the simulation to study complex signaling and metabolic networks. The model captures the highly dynamic nature of cellular structures that fuse and divide, creating particular conditions for molecular interactions that are different for each organelle. We expect that this combination of modeling strategies will be useful for cell biologists to generate formal models that can be used to unveil the essential mechanisms underlying the highly efficient transport processes observed in living cells. Results Brief model description In this section, we provide a simplified and intuitive description of the model. More details can be found in Methods and in the notes included in the Repast and COPASI code that are freely accessible at the Git repository Organelles carrying four different membrane domains were modeled in Repast (ABM platform). For simplicity, we can think of organelles limited by RabA as early endosomes, by RabB as sorting endosomes, by RabC as recycling endosomes, and by RabD as late endosomes/ lysosomes (Fig. 1a). The organelles, carrying membrane and soluble content were allowed to move, interact and change their shape with time. To setup the simulation, the Repast Builder generates a set of initial organelles according to the parameters and characteristics selected by the user (Fig. 1d and Additional file 1). Repast then runs a loop of actions for all the agents in the model as listed in Fig. 1d and described in Methods. The user can control the model by updating parameters or pausing the simulation. The model continuously generates records of the evolution of the system as requested by the user (example in Additional files 2 and 3). Shape and movement Endosomesinthemodelhaveamembraneareathat embraces a luminal volume and are represented by ellipsoids (spheres for round structures and elongated ellipsoids for non-round endosomes, depending on the volume/area ratio; Figs. 1b, 2, and movie in Additional file 4). The size of the organelles is represented in a nm scale. The endosomes are allowed to move randomly except when near a microtubule (MT, light blue straight lines in the model, Figs. 1a, 2, and movie in Additional file 4). Round and tubular organelles on MT, move to the surface or to the center of the cell according to their membrane domains at a speed of 1 μm/sec. Fusion, fission, and luminal vesicles Two closely spaced endosomes with compatible membrane domains are allowed to fuse and form a single organelle. This organelle carries all the membrane and soluble components of the original endosomes. The endosomal compatibilities are listed in Table 1. Endosomes with enough membrane can also split, and form tubules (40 nm diameter) carrying a single membrane domain. The soluble content is distributed proportionally to the volume and the membrane components proportionally to the area of the newly formed structures. The membrane-associated cargoes may have affinities for some specific membrane domains, and will partition during fission according to these affinities. Endosomes can also form internal vesicles, thereby decreasing their limiting area and increasing their volume (the number of internal vesicles is shown as a number inside each endosome, Figs. 1b and 2). Note that the area, volume, Rab, membrane, and soluble contents were preserved during fusion and fission events. New endosomes When new RabA organelles were formed, they were modeled as an endocytic event, budding from the cell surface and carrying soluble and membrane-bound components. Recycling When endosomes carrying RabA or RabC membrane domains were proximal to the plasma membrane, they could release their membrane and soluble content (recycled material), that was incorporated into the plasma membrane or released to the medium.

5 Mayorga et al. Biology Direct (2018) 13:25 Page 5 of 21 Fig. 2 Snapshots of simulations plotted by Repast. a-c The same simulation is shown at three different times. a The inset shows an early endosome (blue perimeter), carrying Tf (red) and dextran (green) cargoes (red + green = yellow content), and also a soluble (S) and a membrane (M) markers. Nearby another early endosome containing just Tf (red content) is present. b After fusion and fission, the membrane marker is segregated to an endosome containing mostly Tf, and the soluble marker to an early endosome containing mostly dextran (inset). c Finally, the endosome containing the soluble marker (S) and dextran matured to a RabD structure (red perimeter) containing an internal vesicle ( 1 character). The endosome carrying the membrane marker (M), after fusion and fission is now a RabB endosome (cyan perimeter) containing Tf (inset). d A larger world of 9 9 μm with much more organelles. e A reduced world of 2.25 X 2.25 μm. f A rectangular world of 2.25 X 4.5 μm. The blue bar at the upper left corner of the worlds corresponds to 0.5 μm Table 1 Parameters used to characterize the organelles simulated in the model Fusion and tethering probability Recycling probability Tubulation tendency Migration on MT Rab switch RabD RabA RabB RabC RabD RabE RabA RabB RabC RabD RabE To model a particular intracellular transport process, the membrane domains surrounding the organelles must be enumerated and characterized. For a standard endocytic route, we have incorporated early (RabA), sorting (RabB), recycling (RabC), and late (RabD) endosomal domains. A TGN domain was also included (RabE). The fusion probabilities were selected according to what is generally accepted in the intracellular transport field (e.g., early and sorting endosomes mix frequently, whereas early and late endosomes seldom fuse). Recycling probabilities were assigned with the same criteria. Tubulation tendency was low for domains surrounding large round organelles (such as late endosomes/lysosomes). Migration on MT was assigned according to the reported position of the organelles in the cell (late endosomes, TGN, and recycling endosomes proximal to the nucleus, and early and sorting endosomes near the plasma membrane). In the pathway simulated, the only switch included was RabA RabD. Rab cascades like this must be programmed in COPASI, by changing the set of enhancers and inhibitors for the corresponding reactions in the rabs_convertion COPASI file (Additional file 5)

6 Mayorga et al. Biology Direct (2018) 13:25 Page 6 of 21 Lysosomal digestion Endosomes carrying RabD domains digest part of their content and membrane. Rab dynamics We generated a set of ODE in COPASI to model the self-preserving behavior of membrane domains and a Rab switch homologous to the Rab5/Rab7 conversion to regulate the transformation of early (RabA) to late (RabD) endosomes (Fig. 1c, Table 3, and Additional file 5) [22]. COPASI and Repast communication was achieved using a previously published method [23]. Hence, in the simulations, Rab dynamics was controlled by differential equations (COPASI) and the rest of the model by ABM (Repast). A global analysis of the endocytic route proposed shows four stable compartments that communicate with each other by fusion and fission events (according to membrane domain compatibilities shown in Table 1. Notice that homotypic fusion has the highest probability for all compartments. The exchange of material during fusion/fission processed is in principle bidirectional. However, the flux can be orientated according to how the molecules distribute during fission events. On top of this organization, two irreversible steps strongly influence transport: the maturation of early to late endosomes and the recycling to the plasma membrane. In the present model, only the content is recycled; hence recycling endosome domains are preserved. In contrast, maturation caused the consumption of early endosomes and the building up of late endosomes. To compensate for this, new early endosomes are constantly formed and lysosomal digestion consumes RabD domains. Model characterization In ABM models, during a tick interval, all agents are interrogated about performing or not a set of actions (Fig. 1d and Methods). The tick duration was calibrated with the fastest process in the model (movement of organelles on MT; 1 tick = 0.06 s). The model was stable for more than ABM ticks corresponding to about 3 h in cellular time. The characteristics of the resulting organelles correspond to a rather standard endocytic pathway with organelles moving in and out the cell surface by random movements or along microtubules (Fig. 2 and movie in Additional file 4). Large round-shaped structures accumulated opposite to the plasma membrane (in the nucleus side). Fusion and fission of the organelles triggered the mixing and segregation of membrane domains, while the RabA/RabD switch guaranteed the eventual maturation of early to late structures. Events of fusion, fission, maturation and cargo transfer are shown in the inset of Fig. 2a-c and explained in the figure s legend. If a single endosome was generated, a RabA organelle matured to RabD according to the molecular switch modeled by differential equations in COPASI (Fig. 1c and Table 3). With time, RabD was incorporated into the organelle and finally the switch occurred (Fig. 3a). When other Rabs were also present, the process was more complex and the prevailing Rab tended to displace less abundant Rabs. Fig. 3b shows what happened with an organelle that initially had 45% of its surface covered with RabB and 55% with RabA. In this condition, RabB disappeared and RabA covered the endosome to, later on, switched to RabD. However, notice that the switch kinetics was altered by the presence of RabB. On the contrary, if 55% of the organelle was initially covered with RabB, the endosome rapidly evolved to an all-rabb structure (Fig. 3c). The scenario was far more complex when other endosomes were included in the model. The molecular switch was profoundly affected when a new membrane domain was incorporated by fusion with other endosomes or when fission segregated a complete membrane domain from the organelle. Examples of RabA/RabD switches are shown in Fig. 3 d to g. In Fig. 3d, a fusion occurred just after the switch, causing a large increase in the endosome size (size are shown as relative to the initial endosome radius underneath the corresponding switch process). In Fig. 3e, there was a fusion (size increase) and fission (size decreased) after which, the endosome matured to a RabD structure. In Fig. 3f, there were several fusion and fission events that profoundly affected the switch kinetics. Finally, in Fig. 3g, the endosome was first converted to a RabB structure and then to a RabD organelle by fusion and fission processes. The behavior of this complex scenario can be analyzed in different ways. For example, although in Fig. 3a to c it is clear that a single endosome was analyzed, it is not obvious which endosome is followed in Fig. 3d to g. This is due to the occurrence of fission events that make it unclear which structure is described. To avoid this ambiguity, markers, modeled as soluble or membraneassociated cargoes, were loaded in the endosomes. The analysis of the organelles that contain a specific marker during the course of the simulation provided meaningful information about the transport events for a specific cargo. In Fig. 3d to g, a membrane marker was included and the Rab composition of the endosome carrying the marker was followed along the time. Fig. 3h and i, show the characteristics of organelles carrying a membrane and a soluble cargo along the course of the 30 min simulation. Both markers were initially loaded in the same RabA structure. Notice that both sensed the same initial steps of a RabA/RabD switch, but before maturation was completed, fusion and fission events transformed the organelle in a RabB structure, from where

7 Mayorga et al. Biology Direct (2018) 13:25 Page 7 of 21 Fig. 3 Rab dynamics in endosomes. a Maturation of an isolated RabA endosome to a RabD endosome. b Same as a, but the initial Rab content was 55% RabA, 45% RabB. c Here, the initial Rab content was 45% RabA, 55% RabB. Notice that the endosome evolved into a pure RabB structure. d-g Several RabA, RabB, RabC and RabD endosomes were created and allowed to fuse and divide. A membrane marker was initially loaded in a RabA endosome. With time, the endosomes carrying the markers changed their membrane composition by means of RabA maturation and a combination of fusion and fission. The size (relative to the initial value) of the endosomes carrying the markers is plotted underneath each panel. h-j. A soluble and a membrane marker were loaded in a RabA endosome. The endosomes containing the markers were followed during 30 min. In h the membrane marker was initially in a RabA endosome; afterwards, it moved back and forward between RabB and RabC endosomes until it was recycled. i The soluble marker suffered the same fate than the membrane marker until it was transferred first to a RabB endosome and then to a RabD endosome by means of several fusion and fission events. j The size of the endosomes carrying the soluble and membrane markers is shown. The size is expressed as the radius of a sphere having the volume of the endosome the fate of the two markers diverged. The membrane marker was segregated in a RabC organelle and for a while kept moving between endosomes carrying RabB and RabC domains, until it was recycled to the plasma membrane from a RabC endosome. Notice the changes in the organelle size that oscillated between 40 and 100 nm radius (Fig. 3j). The soluble marker instead, was transported from a RabB endosome to a large RabD organelle that kept growing by fusion with other RabD structures (Fig. 3j). A different way to analyze the simulation is to take all the organelles at a given time and classify the structures according to the prevailing Rab domain as early, sorting, recycling or late endosomes and to analyze the characteristics of these structures. Histograms in Fig. 4a and b show the size and internal vesicle content distribution of

8 Mayorga et al. Biology Direct (2018) 13:25 Page 8 of 21 different compartments at each time point of the simulation (see Methods). For example, the total number of internal vesicles in the simulation can be classified as being associated to either RabA, RabB, RabC or RabD structures (Fig. 4c). Notice that most of the vesicles accumulated in the RabD endosomes. About 500 internal vesicles were observed in the RabD structures at time 30 min, whereas, RabB and RabC had about 100 vesicles (Fig. 4c, left panel) and RabA had only 1 vesicle (Fig. 4c, right panel). In the expanded scale shown at the right, it can be seen that some internal vesicles recycled to the plasma membrane, a process that mimics the release of exosomes from multivesicular bodies (recycled, Fig. 4c, right panel). Fig. 4 Characterization of organelles in the simulation. a Size distribution in a population of endosomes after 30 min of simulation. The endosomes were classified according to their prevailing Rab domain and the size was calculated as the radius of a sphere having the same volume than the endosome. Notice that RabA structures were small and that the largest endosomes carried RabD domains. b Same as in a, but the frequency of endosomes carrying different numbers of internal vesicle is plotted. For panels a and b, the endosomes of 5 simulations were used. c A different manner to assess the distribution of internal vesicles among organelles. For this calculation, all internal vesicles contained in RabA endosomes were added and plotted at different time of simulation (see Methods). Same calculations were done for each Rab domain. The left panel shows the internal vesicles accumulated in RabD, RabB and RabC structures. The panel at the right, in an expanded scale, shows the internal vesicles in RabA endosomes and the number of vesicles released at the plasma membrane. The values for this figure correspond to the average of 5 identical simulations all organelles classified according to their prevailing Rab domain after 30 min of simulation. Notice that all the organelles have some small endosomes (radius in the nm range); however, large structures (radius > 300 nm) were more frequently observed in late endosomes (RabD) and were absent in the early endosomes (RabA). The size of the largest endosomes carrying RabB or RabC domains had an intermedia radius in the range of nm (Fig. 4a). Internal vesicles were observed in all endosome types, but they were more frequently seen in RabB and RabD structures (Fig. 4b). Another analysis that we performed includes the calculation of the amount of a cargo associated with the Transport of soluble and membrane-bound cargoes In the complex scenario simulated, transport of a cargo molecule is profoundly affected by its behavior during fission events. Like proteins carrying a specific tag in their sequence, cargo moved in this artificial endocytic route depending on their affinity for membrane domains that conditioned their segregation in one or other structure during the budding and fission of tubules. On top of these processes, the maturation of early endosomes will transport to late endosomes all cargoes that are not sorted out to different organelles. Soluble cargoes are not recognized by membranes and accumulated in the vesicular (large volume) structure that remains after the formation of tubules. Moreover, large cargoes (larger than 40 nm diameter, like intraluminal vesicles) are excluded from tubules. These cargoes are prompted to be finally delivered to large late endosomes (Fig. 4c). To analyze the behavior of different cargoes, a soluble (dextran-like) and two membrane-bound cargoes were loaded into early endosomes (RabA) and the model was allowed to evolve for 30 min. The two membrane proteins simulated included: i) a transferrin-like cargo (Tf) that could recycle from early endosomes and recycling endosomes, and ii) a class I major histocompatibility complex -like cargo (MHC-I) that needed to be sorted to RabB structures before being recycled from RabC endosomes. Both proteins were provided with membrane affinities for RabB and RabC domains (Table 2). This means that they were sorted during fission in structures rich in these Rab domains. To analyze the movement of the cargoes, the percentage of each molecule in organelles with different membrane domains was calculated and plotted in Fig. 5. The data showed the average of 8 10 simulations and reproduced the wellcharacterized kinetics of pulse-chase experiments for these ligands. A clear difference was observed between the two membrane proteins Tf and MHC-I, which recycled to the plasma membrane, and dextran that accumulated in late endosomes (Fig. 5a to c). The

9 Mayorga et al. Biology Direct (2018) 13:25 Page 9 of 21 Table 2 List of molecules included in the simulation and their affinities for Rab domains Cargo molecules affinity for the Rab domains RabA RabB RabC RabD RabE GM2 1 M6PR 1 M6PR-HexA 1 HexA soluble cholesterol vatpase proton soluble Tf 1 1 MHC-I 1 1 dextran soluble solublemarker soluble membranemarker 1 1 The molecules that are necessary to model a specific process are enumerated and their affinity for membrane domains specified. For example, to model the hydrolysis of a ganglioside, we included the relevant enzyme, the receptor that transports the enzyme, and cholesterol and protons that modulate the enzyme activity. Other cargo molecules whose transport kinetics are well known, such as Tf, MHC-I, and dextran were added. Soluble and membrane markers are special cargos that are useful to assess the characteristics of the organelles that a selected molecule visit during the simulation. Soluble molecules are easily identified. For a membrane-associated molecule, the affinity for the different domains is inferred from its a priori known destination in a cell. For example, M6PRs are retrieved back to the TGN, so the receptor and the enzyme-bound receptor are given affinity for the TGN domain. Tf and MHC-I are given affinity for RabB and RabC to be sorted out from RabA compartments that eventually mature to late endosomes. Cholesterol is enriched in early endosomal structures and GM2 is sequestered in intraluminal vesicles that accumulate in late endosomes/lysosomes possibility of recycling from early endosomes made the kinetics of Tf recycling more efficient than that of MHC-I. Experimental data have shown that perturbation of sorting endosomes (for example, knocking down Rab22a) profoundly affect the recycling of MHC-I molecules [24, 25] and also, although to a lesser extent, that of Tf [26]. In contrast, transport of soluble markers was only marginally altered [27]. In the simulation, when we knocked out RabB structures, these observations were reproduced fairly well. Tf recycling was strongly diminished, but not abolished whereas the recycling of MHC-I was completely blocked. Transport of dextran to late endosomes was only slightly delayed (Fig. 5d to f). In a different set of simulations, cytosolic RabD was depleted, preventing the maturation of RabA structures. Since RabD organelles were still present in the model, we homologate this condition to a RabD knockdown. The decreased cytosolic RabD inhibited the accumulation of dextran in late compartments and caused a dramatic increase of the fluid phase marker in sorting and recycling endosomes (Fig. 5h). In contrast, Tf recycling was not impaired. The effects observed closely Fig. 5 Pulse/chase of a soluble (dextran-like) and two membranebound (Tf-like and MHC-I-like) cargoes. The molecules were loaded in RabA structures at time 0 of simulation. a-c Association of cargoes with different Rab domains and recycling to the plasma membrane during different chase times. Notice that the membrane markers efficiently recycled to the plasma membrane whereas the soluble marker accumulated in RabD endosomes. d-f Same as in a-c, but when RabB structures were not included in the simulation. Notice that when the RabB compartment was absent, the recycling of Tf was strongly inhibited and that of MHC-I was abolished. In contrast, transport of dextran to late endosomes was only slightly delayed. g and h Same as in A-C (MHC-I not shown), but when cytosolic RabD was set to zero. Notice that when the RabA RabD switch was inhibited, the recycling of Tf was not impaired, whereas dextran transport to RabD endosomes was diminished and this soluble cargo accumulated in RabB and RabC structures. i Snapshot of a simulation without cytosolic RabD. Notice the presence of large RabB endosomes (cyan). The values for this figure correspond to the average of 8 10 identical simulations reproduce what is experimentally observed when Rab7 function is perturbed [28]. The appearance of large sorting and recycling endosomes was evident (compare Fig. 5i with Fig. 2), a phenotype that has been described in cells depleted of Rab7 or expressing a dominant negative mutant of this protein [29]. In all these simulations, the endocytic markers were incorporated in RabA compartments at time zero. In a different protocol, RabA endosomes were empty and uptake was allowed in the 3 6 mintimeperiod.under these conditions, transferrin and dextran were recycled and transported to late endosomes, respectively, with similar kinetics as observed in the time zero protocols (Additional file 6). These results indicate that transport was not strongly affected by the initial conditions of the system. In the figure shown in Additional file 6, six individual runs of the same simulation are shown. Given the stochastic nature of transport, all simulations present particular uptake events and cargo transport

10 Mayorga et al. Biology Direct (2018) 13:25 Page 10 of 21 along time. However, in all simulations, there was a consistent recycling of transferrin and transport of dextran to late endosomes. Exploring the power of adding molecular functionality to the simulation The simplified endocytic route modeled here and the mechanisms for cargo transport proposed reproduced quite well the behavior of several molecules transported along this pathway. But the real strength of this simulation platform is the possibility of easily adding molecular functionality to the structures. For example, a set of differential equations was modeled in COPASI to simulate endosomal acidification. Each organelle was allowed to pump proton into the lumen by means of a membraneassociated vatpase. Leakage reactions allowing the in and out movement of protons were also included (see Methods, Table 3, and Additional file 7). The vatpase was given low affinity for RabB and RabC domains (0.0), high affinity for RabD structures (1.0) and a moderate affinity for RabA (0.7) (Table 2). With these values, the vatpase was enriched in the early/late endosome path, but some activity leaked to other compartments, a distribution that fairly mimicked what is observed in most cells [30]. After a few minutes of simulation, a ph gradient was established in the system. The analysis of this parameter in all endosomes after 30 min of simulation indicated that RabA endosomes had a ph average of 5.7 with a very broad distribution, whereas RabB and RabC were only lightly acidic with ph average of 6.3 and 6.4, respectively (Fig. 6a). On the other hand, RabD organelles had an acidic ph with an average of 5 (Fig. 6a). Following the ph sensed by membrane-associated (MHC-Ilike) markers, we observed that as they moved along different organelles, on average, they were exposed to near neutral ph (6.4 ± 0.22, mean ± SD, taking into account the time remaining at each ph, N = 10, Fig. 6b). However, the probes transiently visit organelles with low ph (Fig. 6b). On the other hand, soluble markers moved rapidly to acidic organelles rich in vatpase with very few oscillations in the ph (ph ~ 5, Fig. 6b). Endosomal ph is an important property of these organelles and plays a central role in several aspects of the endocytic route. For example, the consensus is that acid hydrolases are delivered to lysosomes by vesicular structures coming from the trans-golgi network (TGN) that fuse with early/late endosomes [31]. The enzymes, bound to transport proteins (e.g., mannose 6-phosphate receptor, M6PR), are released into the lumen at the acidic ph of endosomes. To simulate this transport in the model, a new organelle carrying a different membrane domain was included (Fig. 1a). This organelle was given a RabE domain that could interact with RabB organelles (Table 1). A lysosomal enzyme (β-hexosaminidase A, HexA) bound to a membrane-associated transporter (M6PR) was located in the RabE structures and ODEs for membrane association and dissociation reactions were created in COPASI (Tables 2 and 3). Dissociation was promoted at ph below 6 and association was favored at higher ph. Fig 7a shows that the ph in RabE was almost neutral (6.7). Hence, the concentration of free HexA in these organelles was low (Fig. 7b). When the system was allowed to evolve for several minutes, the free enzyme accumulated almost exclusively in RabD organelles (Fig. 7b and c). The M6PR was given affinity only for RabE domains and remained during the simulation mostly in RabE structures (Fig. 7d), but in small amounts, it was found in RabB and C structures, and from there it leaked to the plasma membrane (Fig. 7e, recycled). Another property of the endocytic route is a differential distribution of lipids. Cholesterol strongly influences the biophysical and functional properties of membranes and modulates the activity of receptors and enzymes [32]. This lipid is present in a gradient along endosomal structures. The content of cholesterol is higher in the plasma membrane and decreases from early to late endosomes. Lysosomes have a central role in the sorting of cholesterol out of the endocytic route [33, 34]. To mimic this features of the endocytic pathway, cholesterol was included as a membrane cargo in the newly formed RabA endosomes and the cholesterol of lysosomes was decreased by a reaction modeled in COPASI (Table 3). Cholesterol was given affinity for RabA (1.0) and RabB (0.5) organelles (Table 2). Under these conditions, a cholesterol gradient was spontaneously generated after a few modeling minutes (Fig. 8a). Acid hydrolases in the lumen of late endosomes/lysosomes are responsible for the digestion of many organic molecules, including complex lipids. Defects in this process intoxicate the cell and lead to several storage diseases. Lipid metabolism is influenced by the ph, the specific set of acid hydrolases and also by the lipid composition of the membranes [35, 36]. For example, cholesterol inhibits the activity of several lipid hydrolases [36]. With the incorporation of a lysosomal enzyme (HexA), and the regulation of ph and cholesterol content, the lysosomal digestion of a complex lipid, such as the GM2 ganglioside could be simulated. With this aim, a digestion reaction, stimulated by HexA and acidic ph, and inhibited by cholesterol was programmed in COPASI (Table 3 and Additional file 7). GM2 was included in RabA endosomes as a membrane-associated cargo with affinity for RabD domains (Table 2). The continuous uptake of the glycolipid did not lead to lysosomal accumulation and a gradient was formed with recycling of undigested GM2 to the plasma membrane (Fig. 8b).

11 Mayorga et al. Biology Direct (2018) 13:25 Page 11 of 21 Table 3 Set of reactions and kinetic functions programmed in COPASI Name Reaction Inhibitor(s) Activator(s) Rab Dynamics ks1 Kinetic function: 1þ P expðks2 activatorsþ ks3 P þ exp ðks4 inhibitors Þ ks5 Q substrates ks1 = 11; ks2 = 0.8 ; ks3 = 2; ks4 = 0.2; ks5 = 13 RabA Activation RabAc + Rab0 RabAm RabDm RabAm RabA Inactivation RabAm RabAc + Rab0 RabAm RabDm RabB Activation RabBc + Rab0 RabBm RabBm RabB Inactivation RabBm RabBc + Rab0 RabBm RabC Activation RabCc + Rab0 RabCm RabCm RabC Inactivation RabCm RabCc + Rab0 RabCm RabD Activation RabDc + Rab0 RabDm RabDm, RabAm RabD Inactivation RabDm RabDc + Rab0 RabDm, RabAm RabE Activation RabEc + Rab0 RabEm RabEm RabE Inactivation RabEm RabEc + Rab0 RabEm Kinetic function: k*[substrate] k = 0.3 ra Influx RabAcyto RabAc ra Outflux RabAc RabAcyto rb Influx RabBcyto RabBc rb Outflux RabBc RabBcyto rc Influx RabCcyto RabCc rc Outflux RabCc RabCcyto rd Influx RabDcyto RabDc rd Outflux RabDc RabDcyto re influx RabEcyto RabEc re Outflux RabEc RabEcyto Endosome Acidification and Lipid Metabolism Kinetic Function: k*[substrate] k Proton Pump = ; k 1 Proton leak = 0.04; k -1 Proton leak = 0.04; k Cholesterol depletion 10 Proton Pump vatpase proton + vatpase Proton leak protoncy proton Chol depletion cholesterol + RabD RabD Kinetic Function: k (10 ph phlimit ) enhancer substrates ph = -log[proton]; k, phlimit and enhancer for each reaction are listed bellow HexaA binding: 1, 6, 1.5; HexA release: 2*10-4, 6, -1.5 HexA release M6PR-HexA HexA + M6PR HexA binding M6PR + HexA M6PR-HexA 10 Kinetic Function: 6 ð10 ph 5 Þ 2 Q substrates ½cholesterol þ10 6 ph = -log[proton] GM2 hydrolysis GM2 + HexA HexA Rab dynamics on endosomal membranes was modeled following the scheme shown in Fig. 1c, where each Rab activates its own activation and inhibits its inactivation. RabAc and RabAm refer to the GDP- and GTP-bound forms, respectively (idem for other Rabs). Rab0 refers to a Rab free membrane domain. The RabA RabD switch was programmed adding RabD as an inhibitor of RabA activation and activator of RabA inactivation. In addition, RabA was added as an activator of RabD activation and inhibitor of RabD inactivation. The kinetic function used was able to handle Rab dynamics in all organelles with only five parameters. The parameters were adjusted to mimic the reported Rab5 Rab7 conversion kinetics [5]. Membrane-associated Rab-GDPs were allowed to exchange with a cytosolic pool (cyto Rabs). Units in mm and seconds (see Additional file 5 and Additional file 7 for the specific unit of each parameter) For lipid metabolism, the ph of organelles was regulated by a proton pump and a leakage reaction. Cytosolic ph was set to 7. To model the dynamics of HexA association with its receptor (M6PR), a ph-dependent kinetics function was used [51]. Finally, the GM2 hydrolysis was controlled by a ph and cholesterol-dependent kinetic function [33]. All parameters were adjusted to qualitatively reproduce reported experimental observations. Units in mm and seconds (see Additional file 5 and Additional file 7 for the specific unit of each parameter)

12 Mayorga et al. Biology Direct (2018) 13:25 Page 12 of 21 Fig. 6 Modeling endosome acidification. A proton pump with affinity for RabA and RabD domains was included in endosomes and the proton concentration was calculated using a set of ODE programmed in COPASI. a The endosomes were classified according to the prevailing Rab domain and the ph was calculated from the proton concentration in each structure. The histograms of the ph distribution for each Rab domain were obtained combining the population of endosomes of 5 independent 30 min-runs. b Membrane (light brown) and soluble (dark brown) markers were included in RabA endosomes at the beginning of the simulations and the ph sensed by the probes at each time was recorded. The panel shows the ph sensed by 10 markers in 5 independent runs. Three membrane markers recycled to the plasma membrane before the end of the simulations Perturbation of the conditions for glycolipid digestion (alterations in ph, HexA delivery or lysosomal cholesterol content), strongly affects the efficient digestion of GM2. For example, if the lysosomal processing of cholesterol was inhibited in COPASI, RabD structures became enriched in this lipid (Fig. 8c). High levels of cholesterol in lysosomes caused a defect in GM2 metabolism and the lipid rapidly accumulated in RabD structures (Fig. 8d). Conditions for GM2 hydrolysis were different in each endosome. The amount of lipid and hydrolytic enzyme, the ph and cholesterol content were peculiar for each organelle and changed with time. The simulation allowed to analyze by COPASI the glycolipid metabolism under the prevailing conditions of individual endosomes. Simultaneously, the Rab dynamics for the endosome can be followed along time. As examples, Fig. 7 Modeling lysosomal transport from TGN to endosomes. A RabE domain (yellow, shown as a TGN compartment in Fig. 1a) containing a lysosomal enzyme (HexA-like cargo) bound to a membrane-associated transporter (M6PR-like cargo) were included in the simulation. RabE organelles interact with RabB endosomes. The M6PR was given affinity to RabE domains. The reversible dissociation of HexA from M6PR was programmed as a ph-regulated reaction in COPASI (Tables 1, 2, and 3). a Histogram of ph for RabE structures from 3 simulations (30 min runs). b The amount of soluble HexA (dissociated from M6PR) present in RabD and RabE structures was recorded along the simulation. After dissociation at low ph, HexA behaved as a soluble cargo and accumulated in RabD structures. c Same as in b, showing the association of the HexA with RabA, RabB, and RabC endosomes or recycled to the plasma membrane. Notice the very low values even for the expanded scale used. d The amount of M6PR present in RabB and RabE structures was recorded along the simulation. Most of the receptor was retained in RabE structures. e Enlarged scale to show that a small percentage of M6PR was found in RabB and RabC endosomes. The levels were low in RabA and RabD structures. Part of M6PR was transported to the plasma membrane. Data on panel b to e correspond to the average of 8 10 independent simulations the lipid metabolism and Rab dynamics for four different endosomes are shown in Fig. 9. Thefirsttwoendosomes acquired RabD characteristics (Fig. 9e and f), but the ph, cholesterol content and hydrolytic enzyme were not suitable for GM2 hydrolysis (Fig. 9a and b). On the contrary, the other two endosomes were rich in RabD (Fig. 9g and h) and digested the lipid but with different kinetics (Fig. 9c andd). Discussion We present the first formal model of a complete endocytic pathway mimicking uptake, recycling, and digestion of soluble and membrane-bound cargoes. The model

13 Mayorga et al. Biology Direct (2018) 13:25 Page 13 of 21 Fig. 8 Modeling the lysosomal hydrolysis of a glycolipid. Two lipids (cholesterol-like and GM2-like molecules) were included as membrane-associated cargoes in the simulation. The lipids were loaded in newly formed RabA endosomes, mimicking the uptake from a plasma membrane domain enriched in these molecules. Cholesterol was given affinity for RabA and RabB domains and GM2 for RabD structures. Cholesterol was processed by a reaction programmed in COPASI that depends on the presence of RabD domains. GM2 was digested by a reaction programmed in COPASI that requires HexA, low ph, and low cholesterol. a Cholesterol distribution among different Rab domains along the simulation. Notice that after a few minutes, the lipid formed a gradient in the endocytic route with decreasing concentrations from RabA to RabD structures. b Same as in a, but for GM2. After a transient increase in RabD endosomes, GM2 was maintained at low concentrations in these late endosome/lysosomal structures. Like for cholesterol, a gradient was formed, decreasing from RabA to RabD endosomes. Notice, however, that part of the lipid recycled back to the surface. c When the cholesterol was not removed from RabD structures (the reaction was inhibited in COPASI), the lipid accumulated in RabD endosomes. d GM2 hydrolysis was inhibited by the high cholesterol levels in RabD endosomes; hence, the ganglioside content increased with time in late endosomes. Data on panel a to d correspond to the average of 10 independent simulations can be expanded and complexity can be added to deal with other specific aspects of the pathway not included in the present version. In addition, this modeling strategy is suitable to study molecular interaction and chemical transformations occurring inside endosomes where the conditions change abruptly upon fusion and fission events. These possibilities were exemplified by adding an extra TGN-like domain in the ABM model and ODE to deal with endosomal acidification, lysosomal enzyme delivery, cholesterol processing, and glycolipid digestion. Notice that the model can be expanded to deal with additional structural and biochemical complexity. It is known that intraluminal vesicles and acidic lipids are Fig. 9 Lipid and Rab dynamics in individual endosomes. Repast stored the time series of all the network of reactions (including lipid metabolism, HexA release, and Rab dynamics) calculated in COPASI for each endosome (Additional file 3). Four endosomes were selected with different initial ph. a-d Changes in HexA and lipid content of each endosome calculated by COPASI using the initial values sent by Repast. The concentrations were expressed as a percentage of the initial value. e-h. Changes in the Rab content calculated by COPASI using the initial values sent by Repast. The values are expressed as a percentage of the total area of the endosome. Data coming from 4 individual endosomes important for GM2 digestion [35, 36]. Internal vesicles can be promoted to agents carrying specific lipids and proteins, and the network of acid hydrolases and co-activators necessary for glycolipid digestion can be included in the simulation. Also, the Golgi-endosome trafficking can be completed by adding more transport molecules for the enzymes and new membrane domains to capture the complexity of this particular transport step [12, 31]. The platform is also suitable to model processes occurring in the cytosolic face of the membranes. An elongated world as shown in Fig. 2f could be a good scenario to study molecular mechanisms of organelle movement along microtubules. The model is also a proposal about the general principles governing endosomal recycling and lysosomal targeting. The pathway modeled requires a fine tuning between maturation, which transports in bulk soluble and membrane components to late endosomes, and fusion-fission events, able to sort out membrane factors from the maturing process and direct them to other cellular destinations, including the recycle to the cell surface. From this description, it is clear that transport requires maturation and vesicular transport steps, suggesting that both mechanisms are necessary for efficient intracellular trafficking. In the context of fusion/fission-mediated transport, movement of membrane cargoes between endosomes having different Rab domains depends on the fusion probability between the domains and partitioning preference of the cargo when the budding of vesicles or tubules segregates the membrane domains in separate structures. The